Wandering Heart: The Work and Method of Hayashi Fumiko - PDF Free Download (2025)

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WanderingHeart TheWorkandMethodofHayashiFumiko SusannaFessler StateUniversityofNewYorkPress

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WatashiNoChiheisenbyFumikoHayashi,copyright©1931byFukueHayashi. Bungaku,Tabi,SonotabyFumikoHayashi,copyright©1936byFukueHayashi. WatashiNoShigotobyFumikoHayashi,copyright©1937byFukueHayashi. EnglishtranslationrightsarrangedwithNihonBungeiChosakukenHogoDomeithroughJapanForeign­RightsCentre Publishedby StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,Albany ©1998StateUniversityofNewYork Allrightsreserved ProductionbySusanGeraghty MarketingbyPatrickDurocher PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica Nopartofthisbookmaybeusedorreproducedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithoutwrittenpermission.Nopartofthisbookmaybestoredinaretrievalsystemor transmittedinanyformorbyanymeansincludingelectronic,electrostatic,magnetictape,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwisewithouttheprior permissioninwritingofthepublisher. Forinformation,addressStateUniversityofNewYorkPress,StateUniversityPlaza,Albany,N.Y.12246 LibraryofCongressCataloging­in­PublicationData Fessler,Susanna. Wanderingheart:theworkandmethodofHayashiFumiko/bySusannaFessler. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferences. ISBN0­7914­3907­0(alk.paper).—ISBN0­7914­3908­9(pbk.:alk.paper) 1.Hayashi,Fumiko,1904–1951—Criticismandinterpretation. I.Title. PL829.A8Z641998 895.6'344—dc21 97­41204 CIP 10987654321

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Contents NotetotheReader

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Preface

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Introduction

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Chapter1LifeofandInfluencesontheAuthor

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Chapter2DiaryofaVagabondandtheOptimismoftheEarlierWorks

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Chapter3LonelinessandTravel

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Chapter4Marriage,Family,andWomen'sIssues

101

Chapter5WarandFatalism

131

Conclusion

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Appendix:Translationsof"MyHorizon,""Literature,Travel,Etc.,"and ''MyWork"

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Notes

171

SelectedBibliography

195

Index

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NotetotheReader JapanesenamesaregiveninJapaneseorder,thatis,familynamefirst,thengivenname.Exceptionsarethosenamesgivenintheprefaceandthenamesofthose individualswhosecitedworkswerepublishedinEnglish. IhaveusedtheHepburnromanizationsystemforJapaneseterms,thePinyinromanizationsystemforChineseterms,andtheromanizationsystemdesignatedbythe AmericanLibraryAssociationandtheLibraryofCongressforRussianterms,withtheexceptionofbibliographicnotesofRussianworksintranslation,whicharegiven astheyappear. Unlessotherwisenoted,alltranslationsinthetextaremyown.

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Preface ThereisalargepoolofwritingsonHayashiFumiko,mostofwhichfocusonthelifeoftheauthororononeortwoofhermostfamousworks.Indeed,somuchhas beensaidaboutDiaryofaVagabondthatIhesitatedtosayasmuchasIdidinthisstudy,butIcouldnotdenyitsimportanceinFumiko'swritingcareer.Inanycase, itseemedcleartomethatageneral,encompassingstudyoftheauthorwithattentiongiventothelesser­knownworkswouldbeavaluableadditiontothefield. Fumikowasimmenselypopularinherday,anditseemedoddtomethatawriterwhoseworkisalmostalwaysincludedincollectionsofmodernJapaneseliterature wouldhavehadsolittleseriousacademicworkdoneonheroutsideofstudiesofDiaryofaVagabondandDriftingClouds. RecentlysomenewstudiesandtranslationsofFumikohaveappearedinEnglish:ofnote,JaniceBrownhaspublishedatranslationofAoumaomitariandportionsof DiaryofaVagabond(ISawaPaleHorse&SelectionsfromDiaryofaVagabond[Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityEastAsiaProgram,1997])andJoanEricson haspublishedabookonHayashiFumiko,thatincludesatranslationofDiaryofaVagabond(BeaWoman:HayashiFumikoandModernJapaneseLiterature [Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1997]).NorikoMizutahasalsowrittenonFumiko'sDriftingClouds("InSearchofaLostParadise:TheWanderingWoman inHayashiFumiko'sDriftingClouds,"inTheWoman'sHand:GenderandTheoryinJapaneseWomen'sWriting[Stanford,Calif.:StanfordUniversityPress, 1996]).Inaddition,thereareafewHayashiFumikoshortstoriesintranslation(seebibliography),aswellasapartialtranslationofDriftingClouds.Still,forthe English­boundreader,littleisavailableonthisdynamicwriter.TherehasbeenanumberofarticlesandbookspublishedinJapanese,themostnotablebyProfessor EiichiMoriofKanazawaUniversity.Hisresearchisthoroughandthoughtful,andhisassistancetomeonthisprojecthasbeengreatlyappreciated.Inadditionto ProfessorMori,otherscholarswhohavecontributedsignificantlytothestudyofHayashiFumikoincludeEikoImagawa,whocompiledthechronologicalhistory (nenpu)intheHayashiFumikozenshu*,andTaikoHirabayashi,aclosefriendofFumiko'sandauthorofHayashiFumiko(Tokyo:Shincho*sha,1969).Acareful readingofmyfootnotesshouldgivethereaderanideaofwhoseworkhascontributedmost.

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ImyselfwasdrawntoHayashiFumikonot,asmanypeopleassume,becauseshewasajoryu*sakka(womanwriter).Whatattractedmetoherwritingwasthe independentspiritoftheearlyworks,aspiritthatexpressedaprofoundfaithintheindividual'sabilitytoshapehisorherownlife.Thisfaithcontrastssharplywiththe determinismsocommoninJapaneseNaturalistwritingofthetime,anditstruckmeasquitesignificantthatFumikowroteaboutthesamedowntroddenunderclassthat manyNaturalistschosetoportray,butwiththedistinctdifferencethatshebelievedthelowerclasseshadtheabilitytoworktheirwayoutofpoverty. Fumiko'sattractionanddeepattachmenttotravelalsoappealedtome.Travelhasbeenasignificantandimportantpartofmylife,soanauthorwhogavetraveland travelimageryspecialstatusnaturallycaughtmyattention.Hertravelogueswereajoytoreadandprovidedafreshformatchangefromhernovels. Inthecourseofmyworktherehavebeenmanyindividualsandorganizationswhohavehelpedmakeitallpossible.IthankYaleUniversityandtheYaleUniversity EastAsianCouncilforfundingprovidedduringmygraduatecareer.IwouldalsoliketothanktheJapaneseMinistryofEducationforprovidingmewithascholarship duringtheyearIspentresearchinginJapanatKeio*University. FortheiracademicassistanceinJapanIthankProfessorTeruhikoHinotaniatKeioUniversityandProfessorEiichiMoriatKanazawaUniversity.Fortheiracademic assistancestateside,IthankProfessorEdwinMcClellanandProfessorEdwardKamensatYaleUniversity,bothofwhomprovidedimmeasurableassistanceand encouragement.ProfessorsCharlesHartmanandJamesHargettattheUniversityatAlbanyalsopatientlyprovidedhelpfulcommentsandsuggestionsonthe manuscript.ZinaLawrenceattheStateUniversityofNewYorkPresswasverysupportiveofthisproject,andmadethepreparationofthemanuscriptlessfearfulthan Ianticipated. Manyofmyfriends,bothinsideacademiaandout,havebeenintegraltothecompletionofthisstudy.HereIwouldliketosingleoutandthankRinaSomeya,forher patienceinansweringsomanyquestions,andProfessorAkiraMiyataandhiswife,Sachiko,forbeingmybenefactorsinJapanthroughoutmyacademiccareer.Finally IthankWilliamThomas,whopatientlyreadthemanuscriptandprovidedmanyhelpfulsuggestions.Therearemanyotherswhohavehelpedalongtheway,and althoughacomprehensivelistherewouldgrowtoolong,Iwouldliketoexpressmyappreciationforalltheadviceandinterestmyfriendsandcolleagueshavegiven meconcerningthisproject.

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Introduction AmongthenamesregularlyincludedinthecanonofmodernJapaneseliteratureisthatofHayashiFumiko(1903–1951),asuccessfulwriterfromtheearly1930suntil thetimeofherdeath.Verylittleofherworkisreadtoday,althoughpaperbackeditionsofherthreemostfamousworks,Horoki*(DiaryofaVagabond,1930), Ukigumo(DriftingClouds,1949)andMeshi(Food,1951)arestillreadilyavailableinmostbookstores,andonoccasionacollectionofherworksispublishedina one­volumeset,aswasrecentlydonebyChikumashobo*initscollectionofJapaneseliterature.1 Exceptforthesepublications,though,Fumiko'swritinghasfallen intorelativeobscurity;whenherworksarementionedbyscholars,itiseithertonotehertreatmentofthelowerclassesinDiaryofaVagabondorbecauseshefalls intothecategoryofjoryu*sakka(womanwriter). TheworldofmodernJapaneseliteraturehadalreadypassedthroughanumberofphasesbythetimeFumikoappearedontheliterarysceneintheearly1930s.During theearlyMeijiperiod(1868–1912),writerssuchasFutabateiShimei(1864–1909)andTsubouchiShoyo*(1859–1935)hadconcernedthemselveswiththeissueof whetheranovelshouldbedidactic,realistic,oracombinationofthetwo.Thesemen,alongwiththeirsuccessors,wererespondingtotheWesterninfluencethat floodedintoJapanduringthisperiodofrapidmodernization.InFutabateiandShoyo'swakecamewriterssuchasNatsumeSoseki*(1867–1916)andMoriOgai* (1862–1922),whohelpedcreateaparadigmforthemodernJapanesenovel,onethatwouldcombinetheJapanesepsycheandaWesternconcernfortheindividual. Politicalfermentandrapideconomicgrowthintheearlytwentiethcenturyinfluencedwriterstoexpresstheirsocialviewsthroughfiction;the1920sinparticularsawa burgeoningof"proletariatliterature,"alongwithotherpoliticizedliteraturefollowingintheDadaist,anarchist,feminist,andMarxisttraditions.Concomitantwiththese trendswasthegrowthoftheNaturalistschool—remotelyreflectiveoftheFrenchNaturalists—whoendeavoredtoportraymaninasrealisticamannerpossible. Characters'unremarkableliveswerecarefullydepicted,eachactionminor,withanemphasisonthebanalityoflife.TheunfortunateresultofthiswasthattheNaturalist novelleftthe

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readernotonlywantingmoreaction,butalsosomesortofaffirmationthatlifeitselfwasnotmeaningless.Thefocusontheindividual,presentinfictionfromFutabatei ondown,alltoooftenconcentratedonhisinabilitytofunction.ItwasonthispointthatHayashiFumiko'swritingdiffered,andthatiswhyitwassopopular. Fumiko'swritingdrewawideaudienceofbothmenandwomen,richandpoor,fromallwalksoflife.Whatwasitthatattractedthesereaders?Overall—andthisis particularlytrueofherearlierworks—itwasheroverwhelminglypositivesenseoflife.Facedwithhardshipandmisery,Fumikorespondedwithoptimismandstrength. Herworksprovidedinspirationforthosewhosharedherlot,aswellasaglimpse(forthosewhodidnot)ofwhathumandeterminationcoulddo.Inanagewhenthe influencefromWesternphilosophieshadpaintedadepressing,deterministicviewofmankind,Fumikoportrayedthewonderandbeautyofhumanbeings,expressing inastraightforwardstyleaconfidenceinman'sabilitiestocontrolhislife.ThisconfidencecontrastssharplywiththedeterminismsocommoninJapaneseNaturalist writingofthetime,anditstruckmeasquitesignificantthatFumikowroteaboutthesamedowntroddenunderclassthatmanyNaturalistschosetoportray,butwiththe distinctdifferencethatshebelievedthelowerclasseshadtheabilitytoworktheirwayoutofpoverty.ThisisnottosaythatFumikoapproachedherworkwitha specificpoliticalagenda.Throughouthercareerherwritingdisplayedavirtualallergytocomplexideologiesandphilosophicalconstructs.Rather,sheexhibitedakind ofnaivecommonsense,onethatanaudiencedisgruntledwiththepetulanceofDadaism,thedidacticismofMarxism,andthedeterminismofNaturalism,found refreshingandhonest. Fumiko'searlywritingalsoattractedreadersbecauseitcrossedsocialboundariesandprovidedthewealthyandwell­to­dowithawindowtolifeinthelowerclasses. InasocietyheavilyinfluencedbyConfucianvalues(albeitJapanese­styleConfucianism)whereinterpersonalrelationsandthemaintenanceofone'sproperpositionin societyplayedaweightyroleinlife,Fumikogaveheraudienceachanceto"mingle"withthosepeopletheywouldotherwisenevermeet.Allthesefactors,combined withhercarefreestyleandaccessibleprose,madeherawriterofimmensepopularity. Thisbookcoversmyareasofinterest;itdoesnotexhaustthepossibletopicsconcerningtheauthor.Ihopethatitwillhelpbreaknewground,farawayfromthe constanthumofDiaryofaVagabond­relatedcommentary,whereonecanreadaboutFumiko'slesserknownworksaswellassomeofhermorefamousones. Somemayfaultmefornotincludinganythingbeyondpassingmentionofsomewell­knownworkssuchas"Nakimushikozo*"(Crybaby,1935)and"Bangiku"(Late Chrysanthe­

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mum,1947),butIhopethatmydiscussionsofsomeheretoforeunknownworkswillcompensateforthis.MyultimategoalistoprovideageneralstudyofFumikothat wouldhelpintroducethenewreadertoherworks.Althoughstillfewinnumber,studiesandtranslationsofherworkshavebeguntoappearinWesternlanguages,and thepresentbookisanefforttorespondtoanincreasedinterestinthewriter.2 Mymethodsincludedathoroughreadingofallreadilyavailable(andsomenotsoreadilyavailable)worksbytheauthorandthenamethodicalsortingprocessto compileaselectionofworksthatwoulddemonstratethepointsIwishedtomake.Ofcourse,thereismuchinputfromsecondarysources,althoughItriedtofocus moreontheworksthemselvesinordertoavoidundueinfluencefromothers'commentary.ThereisquiteanumberofcriticalarticleswrittenonFumiko(foraselected list,seethebibliography),someofwhichhaveinterestingthesesbutmostofwhicharequickrehashesofFumiko'slifeandwritingcareer.Inordertounderstand Fumiko'splaceintheliteraryworld,acursoryreadingofthesearticlesisnecessary,buttheinterestedstudentshouldbecautionedthatfewofthemoffernewinsight.I shallrefrainfromspecificallyrecommendingany,assuchrecommendationswouldhavetodependontheindividualstudent'sareaofinterest. Chapter1givesabriefbiographicaloverviewoftheauthor'slife,somethingthatIfeltwasnecessaryinordertounderstandthechangesthataffectedherwriting.A writerisrarelyabletocompletelydivorceherselffromthecontextinwhichshelives,anditwasthisfactthatpromptedmetowritethischapter.Also,somuchof Fumiko'sliteraryreputationisbasedonherimpoverishedupbringingthatwithoutsomeattentiongiventothesubjectitishardtoappreciatewhatmanyofhercritics saidabouther.Whereappropriate,discussionofspecificworksisincludedtohelpilluminatetheinfluencesthatherlifehadonherwork. Theremainingchaptersprovideamorein­depthlookatspecifictopicsthatareprominentinFumiko'sworks.Chapter2discussesDiaryofaVagabondandsomeof theearliershortstories;itfocusesonFumiko'sstrugglewithwhatwritingmeanttoherandwhathermissionwasasawriter.Itincludesashorthistoryofthe publicationofDiaryofaVagabond,discussionofthepossibleinfluencesofotherwritersonFumiko'swriting,theoptimismexpressedinthetext,whetherDiaryofa VagabondfollowsinsomeofthetraditionsofclassicalJapaneseliterature,andfinallyacomparisonofDiaryofaVagabondandsomeotherearlyworksinsearchof enduringaspectsofFumiko'swriting. Chapter3addressestheimportanceoftravelandtravelimageryinherwriting.Init,IdiscusstheimportanceofnostalgiaandlonelinessinFumiko'stravelogues,and howtheformerisnecessaryforthelattertobeexperienced.Ialsoexaminetheexpressionofthoseemotionsin

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Fumiko'sfiction,andhowthetravelmotifinformsmuchofherwork. Chapter4discussesthetopicofmarriageandotherfamilyrelationships,andhowFumiko'streatmentofthememphasizedtheimportancesheattachedtofreedomof choice.Whereastheearlierworks,suchasDiaryofaVagabond,rarelywentfurtherthantoexpressasimplebeliefintheexistenceoffreewill,theworksdiscussed inthischapteraddresshowimportantitisthatonebepermittedtoexercisethatwill,unfetteredbysocietalrestraints. Chapter5examinesthelaterworksinFumiko'scareer.Theseworksshowamarkedchangeinherwriting:theycarrythedark,depressingmessagethatmanmaynot controlhisfate.Hercharactersintheseworksexhibitaresignationheretoforeunseen,andmanyofthembelievethat,giventheirhelplessnesstochangetheirlivesand theworldaroundthem,thereislittlepointinplacingmuchimportanceonthecomplexitiesofethics. IntheappendicesIhaveincludedthetranslationsofthreeessaysthatareheavilyquotedinthemaintext,sothatthereadermayseeforhimselfthefulltext.Reading Fumiko'sessayscanbeatryingexercise,assherarelyfollowedalogicaltrainofthought.Afterreadingahostofthemhermeaningbecomesclearertothereader,but totheuninitiatedeyetheseworksmayseemquiteconfused.InmyanalysisoftheseessaysIhaveimposedwhatItaketobetheimplicitlogicalstructureofFumiko's thoughts,andhavedulynotedthatinthetext. HayashiFumikoproducedhundredsofworksduringhershortlife.Thepacethatshesetforherself—onethatmostprobablycontributedtoherearlydemise— suggeststhat,hadshelivedlonger,acollectionofherworkscouldhavebeentwicethesizeitistoday.Andwhilethenatureofherwritingchangedovertheyears,the literaryqualitydidnotdiminish;herfirstandlastnovelsarebothregardedasmasterpieces.3

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Chapter1 LifeofandInfluencesontheAuthor Childhood HayashiFumiko1 wasborninMoji,asmalltownontheShimonosekiStraits,in1903.2 Hermother,HayashiKiku,andfather,MiyataAsataro*,werenotmarried, soFumikowasregisteredinhermaternaluncle's(HayashiHisayoshi)familyregistry.FumikoneverexpressednegativefeelingsaboutthefactthatKikuboreheroutof wedlock—forher,lineageorbirthwasofsecondaryimportance.Someofherfictionalcharactersareillegitimatechildren,buttheirillegitimacyisneversomethingwith whichtheystruggleinanypsychologicalway.Illegitimacyispresentedasmoreofasocialbarrierthananythingelse.Thiswillbediscussedinmoredetaillater,but sufficeittosaythatFumikodidnotletherillegitimacybecomeadisruptiveconcerninherlife. KikuwasbornonNovember28,1868,theeldestdaughterofhermother,Fuyu,andherfather,Shinzaemon.HerfamilyranadrugstoreinKagoshima,andthenlater ahot­springinninSakurajima.3 Kikuhadadaughter,Hide,outofwedlockonJuly13,1898.AmanbythenameofMatsuyamaKojiro*acknowledgedpaternity, butdidnotmarryKiku.InhisbiographyofFumiko,HayashiFumiko:Hitotosakuhin(HayashiFumiko:TheWriterandHerWorks,1966),FukudaKiyotofrankly notesthatHideandFumikoweremostlikelynottheonlychildrenthatKikubore,andthatthereisnowaytoknowhowmanyothersiblingsbydifferentfathers Fumikomayactuallyhavehad.4 InDiaryofaVagabond,Fumikowritesthatshehadatotalofsixsiblingsbutthatshehadonlyevermetone,asister—presumably Hide.Shesaysshehasbittermemoriesofthatsister,andthatshedidnotlikethewayinwhichthesistertreatedKiku.5 ReadingFumiko'sotherautobiographical works,however,onegetstheimpressionthatshewasanonlychild;obviouslyhersiblings,howevermanytheremayhavebeen,didnotplayaveryimportantrolein herlife. Fumiko'sfather,Asataro,wasbornin1882inEhimePrefecture,theoldestsonofamiddle­classfarmingfamily.Hisfamilyalsoranasilver­

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smithshop,andhehadanunclewhomadeaspecializedkindofpaper—Iyopaper—intheprefecturalcapital,Matsuyama.Asataro*helpedhisunclebypeddlingthe paper,andthiswasthebeginningofhiscareerasanitinerantpeddler.LaterAsatarostruckoutonhisownpeddlinglacquerwareandcutlery.Thisworktookhimto Sakurajima,whereheoftenstayedatKiku'sfamily'sinn.6 Itwastherethatthetwometandbecameromanticallyinvolved. KikuwasfourteenyearsAsataro'ssenior—quiteanagegap—andFukudaKiyotosaysthatthis,andthefactthatAsataroneverregisteredFumikoinhisownfamily register,wouldsuggestthatAsataroneverhadanyintentionofmarryingKiku;hewassimplyinterestedinashortaffair,butthebirthofababycausedhimtostay sevenyearswithKikubeforefinallyabandoningherandFumikoforanotherwoman.7 FumikosaysinDiaryofaVagabondthathermotherwaschasedoutoftown forbecominginvolvedwithsomeonefromanotherprovince,butitseemsmorelikelythatKiku'sinfidelityitself,nottheforeignnessofherlover(Asataro),embarrassed herfamilyenoughtoaskhertoleave.KikuandAsataromovedtoYamaguchiPrefecture.8 SometimebetweenSeptember1899andMay1901,KikuandAsataroleftSakurajimaandwentontheroadtogetherasitinerantpeddlers.Thecouplerenteda houseinMoji,anditwastherethat,afteralaborinducedbyafalldownaflightofstairs,KikugavebirthtoFumiko.9 AtthetimeofFumiko'sbirthAsatarowas workinginShimonosekiasanassistantinapawnshop,butby1904hehadsetoutinhisownindependentbusinessandmovedthefamilyfromMojitoShimonoseki, whereherananauctionhouse.BusinesswasbriskduetotheoutbreakoftheRusso­JapaneseWar,andAsatarosoonopenedbranchstoresinthecitiesof Wakamatsu,Nagasaki,andKumamoto.Torunthesebranchesheenlistedthehelpofsomefriends,oneofwhomwasSawaiKisaburo*,themanwhowould eventuallyadoptFumikoashisowndaughter.KisaburocamefromafarmingfamilyinOkayamaPrefecture,andwastwentyyearsKiku'sjunior. In1907,AsataromovedtheheadquartersofthestorefromShimonosekitoWakamatsu.Locatedneartheferrycrossing(WakamatsuislocatedintheGoto* ArchipelagooffthecoastofKyushu*),theshopsoldsuchthingsasgold­leafscreens,Buddhistaltars,cigarettecases,cloth,textiles,andpocketwatches.Theshop alsoservedasaresidenceforAsataro,Kiku,Fumiko,Kisaburo,andothershopemployees.Forthreeyearsthefamilylivedthisway,untilAsataro'sphilandering causedtoomuchstrifeforthefamilytostaytogether.AsatarohadamistressnamedHama,ageishawhomhehadbeenseeingforyearsandwhofollowedthefamily toWakamatsuwhentheymovedthere.AsatarosetupHamainherownapartmentnearby,butKiku,whowasquiteawareof

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thecircumstances,objectedtotheideaofsomuchmoneybeingspentonherhusband'smistress,soHamawasmovedintotheshopresidencewiththefamily.Asone mayimagine,thiscausedquiteabitoftensionamongfamilymembers.BythispointAsataro*waseagertofindanexcusetoendhisrelationshipwithKiku.Healso realizedthatKisaburo*feltempathyforher,andheusedthatasapretexttothrowthembothoutofthehouse:hesentKikuoutonabusinesserrandonNewYear's Eve,1910,andwhenshefailedtoreturningoodtimehesentKisaburoouttolookforher.Whenthetwoofthemfinallycamehome,heaccusedthemofhavingan affairandtoldthemtoleavethehouse.10Fumikowascalledbeforeherfather,whoaskedherifshewantedtogowithhermotherorstaywithhim.Fumikoreplied firmlythatshepreferredtheformer,soKisaburo,Kiku,andFumikomovedtoNagasaki.11Fumiko'sparents'unhappyunionapparentlyleftadeepimpressionon her;althoughsherecordedremarkablyfewbadmemoriesfromherchildhood,thetopicofsouredmarriagesbeganappearinginherfictionquiteearly. Overthecourseofthenexttenyears,Fumikochangedresidencesandschoolsnumeroustimes,asKisaburo'sworkasatravelingsalesmanrequiredrelativemobility. InApril1910,FumikowasenrolledintheKatsuyamaElementarySchoolinNagasaki.SometimeshortlyafterthatshetransferredtotheHachimanGirls'Elementary SchoolinSasebo.InJanuary1911,shetransferredfromtheHachimanGirls'ElementarySchooltotheNaikeElementarySchoolinShimonoseki,wheresheremained untilOctober1914.Hertranscriptsfromthisperiodshowaveragemarksandatotaloftwenty­fiveabsencesduringthefour­yearperiod. WhileFumikowaslivinginShimonosekiwithKikuandKisaburo,AsataromovedfromWakamatsutoMojiandopenedanewstorethere.HemarriedHamainJune 1911,buttheydivorcednotlongafterinFebruary1914.InoueTakaharu,inhisbiographyHayashiFumikotosonoshuhen*(HayashiFumikoandHerEnvirons, 1990),saysthatwhileAsataroandHamaweremarriedFumikovisitedthemoften,sometimesstayingthenightattheirhouse.12However,thisinformationconflicts withsomeotheraccountsinwhichFumikoissaidtohaverarelyseenherfatherandtohavenotfeltmuchwarmthtowardhim.13Twoofthemaincausesofthisbelief arethesemi­autobiographicalnovelthatFumikowrotein1939entitledHitorinoshogai*(OnePerson'sLife),andanessayshewrotein1941,''Chichiokataru"(A DiscourseonMyFather).Inthenovel,thenarratortellsofherlackofaffectionforherfather,suchasinthefollowingstatements:"PerhapsitwasbecauseIhadbeen separatedfromhimforalongtime,butinanycaseIcouldnotfeelevenalittlelovetowardmyfather";14and"Imustconfessherethat

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Ihavenothingbuthard,coldfeelingstowardmyfather,whothrewouthisownwifeandchild."15TheeventsinOnePerson'sLifesocloselyresembleeventsin Fumiko'slifethatitiseasytoassumethattheformerisatrueaccountofthelatter,butthereisnocorroboratingevidencethatFumikotrulyfeltthatwayabouther father.Indeed,thereareothereventsdescribedinOnePerson'sLifethatapparentlyneverhappenedinFumiko'slife,suchasanaffairwithamannamedKoizumi whileshewasinParis.16TakemotoChimakichiaddressesthisissueinhisbiography,Ningen:HayashiFumiko(ThePerson:HayashiFumiko,1985)andconcludes thatFumikofeltstronglyaboutherfather,butnotinanegativeway.17 Inotherworks,Fumikorecalledthisperiodofherchildhoodasahappyone;sheharborednoanimositytowardHamaandseemedtoenjoyhervisitstoMoji.Kiku andKisaburo*didnotobjecttoherspendingtimeinMoji,either.EvenafterAsataro*andHamaseparated,Fumikoisthoughttohavevisitedherfatheroften.Some sourcesevensaythatAsatarohelpedpayforFumiko'slaterschoolinginOnomichi.18 Fumikothusshuttledbetweenparents,butinOctober1914,Kisaburo'sclothingstorefailedandheandKikudecidedtotryitinerantpeddlingagain.KikuleftFumiko inthecareofherniece,Tsuru,inKagoshima.Consequently,Fumikochangedschoolsagain,thistimetotheYamashitaElementarySchoolinKagoshima.Fumikodid notstaylongwithTsurubeforeshewasshuntedtoKiku'smother'shouse,alsoinKagoshima.Fumikodidnotgetalongwellwithhergrandmother,Fuyu,andshedid notattendschooloftenduringthistime.DetailsofherlifebetweenOctober1914andMay1916areunclear,butafterthatperiodshejoinedKikuandKisaburoon theroad,helpingthemtoselltheirgoods. InMay1916thefamilyrentedahouseinOnomichi,whichtheyusedasabasefortheirpeddlingbusiness.FumikowasenrolledinthefifthgradeclassoftheSecond MunicipalElementarySchoolinOnomichi.Itwasatthisschoolthatshecameundertheguidanceofateacher,KobayashiMasao,whowouldremainanimportant figureinherlife.KobayashiwasthefirstteachertorecognizeFumiko'sliterarytalent;heencouragedhertopursuestudiesinliterature,music,andpainting.The followingyearFumikoaskedhermotherforpermissiontocontinuehereducation,andKikuagreed.Afterpassingtheentranceexaminations,Fumikowasenrolledin theOnomichiMunicipalGirls'HighSchool.Shepaidherowntuitionoutofmoneysheearnedworkingeveningsatalocalsailfactoryandworkingweekendsata noodleshop.ItwasalsoaroundthistimethatFumikomadetheacquaintanceofaboynamedOkanoGun'ichi,astudentattheOnomichiCommercialHighSchool. Gun'ichiwasFumiko'sfirstlove,andwhenhegraduatedin1921andmovedtoTokyotoattendMeijiUniversity,hewrote

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toFumikoandencouragedhertocometothecapitalaftershefinishedschoolinOnomichi. Fumikodidwellatpaintingandcompositionbutshestruggledwithmathematicsandscience,soshetookremediallessonsfromKobayashiathishouse.Kikuand Kisaburo*,busyworking,wereoftenabsentfromthehousewhenFumikocamehomefromschool,sotoescapethelonelinessathomeFumikowouldspendtimein theschoollibrary,wheresheeagerlyreadsuchworksasJackLondon's(1876–1916)WhiteFang(1906)intranslation,andSuzukiMiekichi's(1882–1936) Kawara(Tile,1911).Afterherreadingcomprehensionimproved,sheprogressedtosuchworksasAbbéPrévost'sL'HistoireduChevalierdesGrieuxetde ManonLescaut(TheHistoryofChevalierdesGrieuxandManonLescaut,1731),ProsperMérimée'sCarmen(1847),andJohannWolfgangvonGoethe'sDie LeidendesjungenWerthers(TheSorrowsofWerther,1774),allintranslation.Whenshebecameasecond­yearstudentshecameunderthetutelageofImai Tokusaburo*,aWasedaUniversitygraduate,whointroducedhertothepoetryofHeinrichHeine(1797–1856),WaltWhitman(1819–1892),JosephFreiherrvon Eichendorff(1788–1857),Novalis(akaFriedrichvonHardenberg,1772–1801),KarlBusse(1872–1918),andothers.ItwasalsoduringthistimethatFumikobegan writinglyricalpoetry. OneshouldnotethatFumikoneverlearnedanyforeignlanguagewellenoughtobeabletoreadforeignliteratureintheoriginal;shereadalloftheaboveworksin translation.19ShestudiedEnglishinschool,butshenevergainedproficiency.ShestudiedFrenchatnightschoolduringthetimethatshespentinParisintheearly 1930s,butherFrenchremainedrudimentary.ShelearnedalittleChinesewhenshevisitedChinainthelate1930s,butitamountedtonomorethanisolatedphrases. Likewise,shelearnedfragmentedMalaywhileinSoutheastAsiaintheearly1940s,butneverbecamefluent.Learningwordsandexpressionsinforeignlanguageswas entertainingforFumiko,butshenevershowedenoughinteresttocontinueherstudiestoanadvancedlevel.Inherworksheonlyoccasionallycommentsonherforeign languageability,mostnotablyin"Pari(no)nikki"(ParisDiary,1947)and"Shiberiyanosanto*ressha"(ThirdClassontheTrans­SiberianRailroad,1932).Inthe formerpiece,sherecordsherenrollmentinnightschoolinordertolearnFrench,butshesaysthatherFrenchneveramountedtomuch.Inthelatter,shehasstiltedbut enjoyableconversationswithhercompartmentcompanions(presumablyinEnglish)andalsostrugglestounderstandthemanyforeignlanguagessheencounters throughoutthetraintrip.ItagakiNaokosaysthatFumikodidwellinlanguage­relatedsubjectsinschool,andthatsheenjoyedEnglish,butthereisnorecordofher actualabilityinthesubject.20

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Shewasquitefondofinsertingforeignphrasesinhertext,especiallyinFrench,English,andChinese.WithFrenchandEnglish,eithershewouldwritethephrasein kanji(Chinesecharacters)andglossthecharacterswiththepronunciation,orsimplywritethewordphoneticallyinkana.WithChinese,shewouldwritethewordin kanjiandglossitwithChinesepronunciation.Ineithercase,mistakeswerefrequent,evenallowingforpronunciationchangesduetoJapanesephoneticlimitations. Theuseofforeigntermswasmorefordecorativeemphasisthanforanythingelse.Accuracywassecondary,aslongastherewasatasteoftheforeignlanguagetogive thereaderafeelfortheatmosphereofthestory. TheteenageFumikowasfondofreading,anditispossiblethatreadingbookswasmoreenjoyablethanreadingblackboards,forshewasquitenear­sighted.Fumiko startedtowearglassesfromanearlyage,butshewasself­consciousaboutthemandworethemonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.21Manyphotographsofhershow herwithoutherglasses,lookingvacantlytowardthecamera(whichmusthavebeenbutablurinhervision).Laterinheradultyears,thismyopiatranslatedintoafocus ontheolfactoryasopposedtothevisualoraural.Landscapes,people,rooms,andsoonaredescribedbytheirscent.Someworksmentionscentsmorethanothers, butolfactorydescriptionsarefoundinalmosteverypiece,bothfictionandnonfiction(i.e.,traveloguesandessays).Someexamplesfollowbelow: a)

[Inalettertoherdistantlover:]Evennow,yourscentremainsonmyhands.(TenYearsinShincho* HFZvol.21,13)

b)

"Well,grandmothercomesfromafamilyofdoctors,soshesmellslikemedicine."(TenYears,30)

c)

Rikuebroughtthefountainpenuptohernose.Ithadasoursmell.Whenshegaveitagoodsniff,it smelledlikeaman'shair.Soonthatsournessspreadlikesteamandsurroundedheronallsides.Rikue turnedaroundandaround,tryingtoblowawaythehatefulsmell.(TenYears,49)

d)

WhenYukikobroughthersleevetoherlips,insomewayitsmelledlikeTetsuo.(TenYears,59)

e)

"In[thebox]ofincensethatwassentfromHatoiTemplethereisascentthatIlike.WheneverIsmell thatscent,Irememberthetimewhengrandmotherpassedawayandthereisnostoppingtheloneliness andnostalgiathatensues."22(Ame[Rain,1942]inShincho*HFZvol.21,167)

f)

Ihadbecomeawaitressrightdowntothesmell...(DiaryofaVagabondinShincho*HFZvol.2, 149)

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g)

WhenIopenedtheclosetdoorsIsuddenlysmelledtheodorofalonelywomanlivingalone.(Diaryof aVagabond,160)

h)

"Ilikesensei,sheisagoodteacher,that'swhyIlikeher.Ilovehersmell,too.But,Idon'tlikeher smellverymuchnow."(Kawauta[RiverSong,1941]inShincho*HFZvol.20,174)

i)

Thesmellofmedicinewasasrefreshingasmountainair.(TenYears,15)

j)

Iwentoutside.Asmelloffishwaftedthroughthevillage.(DiaryofaVagabond,166)

k)

Itwasaneveningthatspokeofthecomingofspring,fragrantwiththesmellsofincenseandwomen. (DiaryofaVagabond,175)

l)

Havingjustcomefromthebath,myskinsmelledstronglyofsoap.SomehowwhenIsmelledthesmell ofsoapIfeltlikeIwantedtogotoFrance.(DiaryofaVagabond,195)

m)

Inthetheater,dustyfromhumanbreath,thesmellsoftobacco,driedfish,mandarinoranges,andthe stenchofthetoiletallfilledone'snose.(RiverSong,30)

n)

WhenshepassedthroughtheKaminariGateontoNakamiseWay,herbosomwasboilingoverwith thesmellsofAsakusa.(RiverSong,277)

o)

Rikuewashedherfaceandopenedthewindow—theremusthavebeenachestnuttreeorsomething somewhere,asshehadthesenseofamelancholysmellwaftingwiththebreezeintotheroom.(Ten Years,32)

p)

Theroomwascoldandsmelledofmedicine,andtherewasalonelinessthatstimulatedasenseof sadnessasonemightexperienceonajourney.(TenYears,125)

q)

Perhapsitwasthewind,orthedrivingrainhittingthebambooblinds,thatevokedafeelingsomething likethesadnessfeltonajourney.Mixedwiththesmelloftheincensethathadbeenburningformany dayswerethesmellsofdirtandofthekitchen.(Rain,166)

r)

Michikolayherfacedownonthebookofpoetryandpressedhereyesagainstit.Thenostalgicsmell oftheprintedpaperrosetohernose.(Rain,197)

s)

IembracedthesmellofthedearwoodenboxtomybosomandthoughtwarmlyoftheNewYear's giftsIwouldsendhome.(DiaryofaVagabond,163) Thesepassagescanbedividedintothreegroups:first,thosethatusesmelltodescribecharacters;second,thosethatdescribesettings;and

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third,thosethatrelatesmellstoemotions.Thefirstgroupincludes(a)through(h).Aperson'ssmell,beittheirperfume,theirperspiration,orsomeotherodor,brings theirimagetomindwithoutavisualdescription.Fumikodoesnotdescribethecharacter'sappearance;rather,shedescribeshis/herscentandthatoftenindicates his/herappearance.Whatisalsonotableisthatalthoughthememorymustbepartiallyvisual—itwouldbehardtorememberapersonwithoutseeingsomesortof imageoftheirphysicalappearance—thevisionisomittedfromthenarrative.Inpassage(c)Rikuedoesnotseethemanfromwhomshewantstoescape,inpassage (d)YukikodoesnotseeTetsuo,inpassage(f)Fumikodoesnotappearwithasoiledapron.Yetallthoseimagespassthroughthereader'smindwithnothingmore thanthedescriptionofthesmell. Sightandsmellaredifferentfromtheothersensesinthattheydonotinvolveanactionbytheperceivingactor:touchinvolvesanactionbydefinition,tastenecessarily involvestheactofconsumption,andsoundcanonlybecreatedbyanaction(i.e.,nonactiondoesnotproducesound).Onlyinthecaseofsightandsmellcananactor bedoingnothingelsebutexercisingthatsense.Therefore,inordertoconjureupanimagewithoutanaction,thewriterhasonlytwochoices,sightandsmell.The formerismuchmorecommonlychosenbywritersingeneralthanthelatter,sotheemphasisthatFumikoputsonsmellsoffersafreshchange.Also,asightcanbe describedwithoutassociatedsmellsenteringthereader'smind(theimageofatelephonedoesnotbringtomindacertainsmell),butsmellsinvariablycauseoneto envisiontheobjectthatgivesofftheodor(thesmelloffreshbreadimmediatelybringstomindtheimageofahotloaf).Fumiko'sscent­baseddescriptionsthushavea richnesslackinginpurelyvisualdescriptions. Thesecondgroupofpassagesarethosethatdescribesettingsthroughsmellsinsteadofviews.Thisgroupincludes(i)through(n).Likethosepassagesthatdescribe characters,thesepassagesalsousuallybringtomindboththesmellandthesightofthelandscape.Passage(m)particularlydoesso,asoneimaginesthethickair swirlinginthetheaterairandtheaudiencelightingandsmokingtheircigarettes,peelingorangesandpoppingthesectionsintotheirmouths,rippingpiecesofdriedfish withtheirteethandchewinglaboriously,andfinallygettinguptogotothesqualidtoilet.Theseactionsarenotinthepassageitself,buttheyareundoubtedlythosethat springtothereader'smind,asthedescriptionofthesmellsoftheseactionscannotbedivorcedfromtheactionsthemselvesinone'smind. Thefinalgroupofpassagesarethosethatrelatesmellstoasenseofloneliness,melancholy,ornostalgia.AdetaileddiscussionofFurniko'suseoflonelinessand nostalgiainhertravelimageryfollowsinchapter3,butpassages(e)and(o)through(s)demonstrateherehowshecom­

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binessmellswiththeseemotions.23Forexample,inpassage(o),thesmellitselfisdescribedasmelancholy;thisistechnicallyimpossible,buttheimplicationisthatthe smellofthechestnuttreeremindsherofsomethingthatmakeshersad.Inpassage(e),thesmellofincensebringsbackthememoryofalostgrandmother,amemory thatcausesthespeakertofeelnostalgic.In(r),Michikohasnopastexperienceswiththeprintedpagetomakeherfeelnostalgicaboutthesmellofink,butratheritis thepoetrywritteninsuchinkthatevokesheremotions.Intheseandtheotherexamples,thesmellbringsforthamemorythatisdirectlyassociatedwithanemotion. Fumiko'suseofsmelldidnotchangeovertheyears;therearesimilarpassagesinworksfromtheearliestdaysofherwritingcareerandinthoseshewrotedecades later. YoungAdulthood In1921,asafourth­yearstudentatthegirls'school,FumikohadsomeofherpoetrypublishedinSan'yo*hinichishinbun(TheSan'yoDailyNewspaper)underthe pennameAkinumaYoko*.Shealsopublishedthreepoems—"Haiennoyube*"(EveningattheSuperannuatedEstate),"Kanariyanouta"(Canary'sSong),and "Inochinosake"(ElixirofLife)—inBingojijishinbun(TheBingoCurrentEventsNewspaper).Fumikograduatedfromthegirls'schoolwithpoormarks,ranking 76thinaclassof85students.Thecombinationofnotdoingwellinthesciencesandworkingnightsandweekendstookitstollonheracademicrecordbutitdidnot preventherfromgraduating.Becauseofherhumbleoriginsandtherelativelyspottynatureofherearlyeducation,Fumikoisoftenthoughtofasonewhoneverfinished school,butthisissimplynotthecase.Whilehereducationwasnotparticularlyadvanced,itdidprovideherwiththebasicskillssheneededtobecomethepopular writerthatshewas.Itwouldbeanexaggerationtosaythatshewasanextraordinarilygiftedchildwhotaughtherselftowrite;KobayashiandImaibothencouraged andhelpedherlearnmoreaboutliterature.However,whileshecontinuedtoreadwidelyasanadult,herliterarycuriosityneverextendedintophilosophicallycomplex academicquestions.Furthermore,hervocabularyneverdisplayedthedepthandvarietythatonewouldassociatewiththeprecociouschildsheisoftensaidtohave been.Insum,shewasneitherachildgeniusnoranelementaryschooldropout;shewasasecondaryschoolgraduateofaverage,orperhapsslightlyaboveaverage, intelligence. FumikodecidedtotakeGun'ichi'sadviceandmovetoTokyoinApril1922.ThecityheldtwopromisesforFumiko:first,thechancetolivehappilyeverafterina marriagewithherchildhoodsweetheart;sec­

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ond,theopportunitytoadvanceintheliteraryworld.ThemajorityofwritersinJapanatthetimelivedandworkedinTokyo,anditwasgenerallyconsideredtheplace oneshouldliveifonewantedtoestablishoneselfasawriter. OnceinTokyo,FumikohadtosupportherselfwhileshewaitedforGun'ichitograduatefromuniversity.Shewentthroughagamutofjobs:publicbathattendant,shoe attendant,electricalfactoryworker,celluloidtoyfactoryworker,parcelwrapper,officeworkerinastockbroker's,andmore.24SoonafterFumikohadmovedto Tokyo,KikuandKisaburo*alsomovedthereandsetupasecond­handclothingstoreintheKagurazakaarea.Fumikothenworkedwithhermothertransporting goodsforthestore. InMarch1923Gun'ichifinallygraduated,butthingsdidnotgoasFumikohadplanned.Gun'ichi'sfamilyobjectedtohismarryingFumiko,presumablybecauseofher dubiousbackground,soheendedupbreakinghisengagementtoher.Itwasagreatdisappointmentforher,butshestayedoninTokyoworkinginacaféandlivingin arentedapartmentinShinjuku,notfarfromwhereherparentswereliving.WhentheGreatKanto*EarthquakehitonSeptember1,1923,Fumikofledthecityalong thecoasttoOsaka*,thenwenttoOnomichi,whereshestayedatherformerteacherKobayashiMasao'shouse.ItwasduringthistimethatKobayashisuggestedshe usethepenname"Fumiko."25ShelaterwenttoShikoku,whereshemetwithherparentswhohadfledtherefromthedevastatedTokyoarea.Fromaboutthistime on,shebegankeepingthediarythatwasthebasisforherfirstnovel,DiaryofaVagabond. In1924,FumikoreturnedtoTokyo,wheresheworkedfortwoweeksasamaidforthewriterChikamatsuShuko*(1876–1944).Shemayhaveintendedtostay longer,buttwoweekswereallshecouldstandofsuchwork.Asshedidafewyearsearlier,shewentfromlow­wagejobtolow­wagejob—celluloidfactoryworker, salespersoninawoolshop,scrivener'sassistantinthecitydistrictoffice,officeworker,sushishopassistant,waitress,andsoon—tosupportherself,butthewages werenotsufficientandherparentshadtosendhermoneyfromOnomichi(wheretheywereliving)tocoverhercostofliving. Duringthistime,shegottoknowthepoetandmoderntheateractorTanabeWakao(1889–1966).Shemovedinwithhim,buttherelationshipdidnotlastlong.One dayFumikofoundasavingspassbookwithabalanceof2,000yenandaloveletterfromanotherwomaninhisbag.Fumikohadbeenworkingtosupportthebothof themandbarelymakingendsmeet,sotherealizationthathewashordingmoneyplushavinganaffairwasenoughtomakeherleavehimafteronlytwoorthree months.26ThroughTanabe,FumikohadmetthepoetTomotaniShizue

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andthroughherconsequentlygottoknowagroupofanarchistpoetswhometonthesecondfloorofaFrenchrestaurantinHongo*.TheregularsincludedHagiwara Kyojiro*(1899–1938),TsuboiShigeji(1897–1975),OkamotoJun(1901–1978),TakahashiShinkichi(b.1901),OnoTozaburo*(b.1903),KanbeYuichi*(1902– 1954),TsujiJun(1884–1944),andNomuraYoshiya(1901–1940).Itwashere,too,thatshemetthenineteen­year­oldHirabayashiTaiko(1905–1972),withwhom shebecamegoodfriends. Theabove­mentionedanarchistpoetsaredescribedbyFukudainthefollowingway: Intheliteraryworld[followingtheendofWorldWarI],emphasiswasplacedon"laborliterature"andtheperiodicalTheSowerwasstartedasoneofthefirstpiecesofproletarian literature[inJapan].Amongthepeopleinthismovement[whichfocusedonProletarianliterature],theanarchistscomposedafactionthatstrovefortheutopianextremesof nineteenth­centuryEuropeanliberalthought.TheseJapaneseanarchistssoughtthenihilisticpleasuresthathadariseninGermany.Theywerebaptizedinthesurrealisthuesof Dadaism.AndtheywereabitBohemianontopofitall.27

Otheraccountsdescribethisgroupinasimilarfashion;theconsensusisthatthewriterswhometattheFrenchrestaurantcomposedagroupwho,inthepolitical turmoilfollowingWorldWarI,wereinterestedinabroadspectrumofleftistmovements.Butwhileanarchism,liberalism,nihilism,andDadaismdonotshareidentical ideologies,theydohaveonethingincommon:theyareallantiestablishmentarian.Itwasthisunifyingaspectthatseemstohaveinterestedthesepoets.Certainlythis wouldhaveattractedFumikotoo,forshewasasfardistancedfromtheestablishmentaspossible.Thepoets'rhetoricsoonworethinonFumiko,though,andafew yearslatershedecidedthattheirideasweretooextremeforhertastesandshewithdrewfromthegroup.28 InJuly1924,TomotaniandFumikobeganpublishingapamphletentitledFutari(TheTwoofUs),whichcontainedpoetrybybothofthem.29Fundsforpublishing TheTwoofUswereprovidedbyKanbeYuichi,thepublisheroftheDadaistmagazineDamudamuandoneoftheanarchistswhometregularlyattheFrench restaurant.Fumiko'spoetry,particularlyherpoem"O­shaka­sama"(LordBuddha,1924)washighlypraisedbyTsujiJun,butTheTwoofUswasdiscontinuedafter onlythreeissues.Fumikohadenoughconfidenceinherwritingskills,though,tovisitandconsultwithtwowellestablishedwritersduringthistime:UnoKoji*(1891– 1961)andTokudaShusei*(1871–1943).UnoKojigaveheradviceonhowtowrite,andTokudaShuseigaveherfinancialassistance.

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AfterseparatingfromTanabe,FumikolivedbrieflyinaboardinghousewithayoungstudentfromToyo*Universitywhoalsowrotepoetry.Shortlyafterthatshe becameintimatefriendswithNomuraYoshiya(oneoftheleftistwritersmentionedabove)andendedupmovingintohisboardinghousewithhim.Nomurawasthe criticChibaKameo's(1878–1935)nephewandhadpublishedanarticleinasupplementalissueofChuokoron*(CentralReview)inJune1923,entitled"Puroretaria sakkatosonosakuhin"(ProletarianWritersandTheirWorks).Helaterpublishedtwopoetryanthologies,Hoshinoongaku(CelestialMusic,1924)andSankakukei notaiyo*(TriangularSun,1926).FumikodescribesNomurainDiaryofaVagabondasaviolentmanwhobeather.30Inadditiontothat,hewasasicklymanwho couldnotcontributemuchtosupportingthetwoofthem,whichleftthebruntoftheburdenonFumiko.31Eventuallyhe,likeTanabebeforehim,tookupanother loverandFumikolefthimin1926tomoveinwithHirabayashiTaiko,whohadalsorecentlypartedwithherlover,IidaTokutaro*(1903–1933). Fumiko'sdifficultchildhoodandexperiencewithNomurawereundoubtedlybehindhertendencytowritewithbrutalfrankness.Especiallyinherearlierworks,Fumiko oftendepictshercharacters'actionsanddialoguewithabluntnessnotoftenseeninJapaneseliteraturefromtheperiod.Sheprefershercharacterstohaveclearly definedopinionsandbehaviorratherthanvagueresponsesandambiguousreferences.Theresultmayhaveshockedsomecontemporaryreaders,asFumikodoesnot shyawayfromdepictingpsychologicalandphysicalviolence.Thefollowingpassage,fromhernovelInazuma(Lightning,1936),demonstratesthis.Thetwo charactersinvolvedaretheheroine,Kiyoko,andTakakichi,amanwhomherfamilywantshertomarry.Kiyokodoesnotwanttobepartytoanarrangedmarriage, butTakakichiispersistent.Itisneartheendofthestory,andTakakichihascometoKiyoko'splacesearchingforhissister,Mitsuko,whohasdisappeared.Kiyokois vexedbyhispresence: Takakichihadaboil­likeabscessunderhisrightear,andhehadadarkplasterstuckonit.Hisfacelookedoddlyinhuman,andtherewerefrighteningdarkcirclesunderhiseyes. HeputanAsahicigarettebetweenhispaleswollenlipsandgesturedforamatch.Kiyotofeigneddisinterest;shefoundthewhitenessofthecigarettebetweenTakakichi'slips pathetic.Takakichiwettedtheendofthecigaretteandsaid,"Hey,gimmeamatch."Kiyokodisgustedlygavehimamatch,promptlytookhersuitcaseoutoftheclosetandbegan changingherclothes. "Hey!" Therewasnoreply.

Page13 ''Kiyoko..." "What?" "Howstupid!Whatareyoudoinginsuchahuff?" Againtherewasnoreply.Kiyokostoodinfrontofthefull­lengthmirrorandbeganarrangingherhair,butshefoundthescaraboveherownlipterriblyugly.Takakichisuddenly stoodup.HethrewthecigaretteouttheopenwindowontothestreetbelowandstoodnexttoKiyoko,buthesmelledsooftheplasterthatshesaid,"Whatareyoudoing?"and pushedhisbodyaway.TakakichipushedKiyokodownonthetatami,breathedheavilyandbrushedherhandawayfromherchest.Shehadlied[aboutMitsuko'swhereabouts] andnowhavingbeenpusheddownlikethismadeherseethepoplartreeoutsideherwindowlikeacloudofbluesmoke.Thesunwashighinthesky,andthedizzyingwarmth spreadthroughthetatami. "Ba...Bastard!Whatareyoudoing?!I'llscream,youidiot!Damnyou!" Thethreadinhershoulderseamwasrippedandthreatenedtotearoff.Takakichi'sarmclosedonKiyoko'snecklikeapieceofsteel.Dirtyspittlegatheredonhislipsasheglaredat her,butsheglaredbackandbroughtbothherhandsuptohisjaw. "Stopit!Isaidstopit...Idiot!" "SoI'mstupidandfullofshit,eh?Youbrazen..." TakakichipushedKiyokoagainstthewallwithhisbrawnystrength.PressedunderneathTakakichi'sthick,heavychest,Kiyokoshuthereyes,resignedlycurledupherbodyand listenedintentlytothehot­temperedpoundingofhisheart.Takakichi'sbreathwasstiflingashebroughtKiyoko'sfaceuptohisown,butshesuddenlydrewinherchinandbent backwards,likeanowlrightingitself,andbithisleftcheekwithasharpnessthatdrewasprayofblood.32

Thisviolentpassageisnotuniqueinthenovel.TherelativelycivilizedconversationthatKiyokohaswithherneighbor,Kunimune,afewpageslaterwouldbe unremarkableinadifferentsettingbutsurroundedasitisbysuchviolenceitstandsoutfromthepage.33Thecharactersseemtotakesuchbrutalityinstrideasan unpleasantbutunavoidablepartoflife. Anotherparticularlyviolentpassagecanbefoundintheshortstory"KuroitseruSonata"(KreutzerSonata,1949)inwhichahusband,Koji*,andwife,Namiko,tryto dealwiththeirhopelessmarriage.Thetwodislikeeachotherintensely,asisclearinthissceneinwhichtheyfightaboutwhethertoseparate: Namikostoodupandwentintothesittingroomtoclosethedoortothekitchen.Kojishookbothhishandswithrageandsaidharshly,"Youarenothuman." "Well,ifIamnothuman,whatareyou?Lessthanananimal?

Page14 You'dbeststartthinkingaboutworkinginsteadoftorturingtheweak[maid]withyourwilddelusions." Namikostoodupsuddenly.Koji*trippedherandslappedherfaceasshelaytoppledonthefloor.Shestaggeredonherkneestowardthealcoveandpressedherhandstoher nose. "See?See?Youaredemented.It'syouwho'stheanimal."Bloodranfrombetweenherfingers.Kojikickedherfirmlyinthebackatthisretort. "Who'sdemented?Beforeyoustarttalkingbacktomeyoushouldconsideryourownstateofaffairs.Youkeeptellingmetogettowork,gettowork—don'tyouthinkIwantto?It makesmesoangrywhenyouactasifworkisjustoutthererollingaroundlikeabunchofloosepotatoes!" Namikostoodupandtookapieceoftissuefromthedressertowipethebloodoffherfingers."I'msureyou'dbeatpeaceifyoukilledme,butIcan'tbekilledsoeasily.Iwillhate youtherestofmylife."34

Afewpageslaterthetwofightagainwithequalferocity: NamikoviolentlygrabbedKoji'shairasifshemeanttotearitfromhishead.KojihadhishandaroundKiyoko'sshouldersandwouldnotletgo.Namikothrustherlegoutinthe directionofthechildrenandhastilytriedtowakethem.Whenherlegthumpedintothemtheycriedoutasifsomeonehadsetfiretothem. Kojigotupsuddenlywithoutsayingathing,buthesteppedonthehemofthemosquitonettinganditcamedownheavilyonhishead. "What'reyoudoing?Ifyou'regoingtokillme,thenpleasedoso!Whatanoutrage!What'sallthissweettalkofyours?"Namikocried. KojikickedNamiko'shipviolentlyasshemovedathisfeet.Anuncontrollable,furiousangerboiledupinsideofhim.Hekickedherforcefullytwoorthreetimes.Hestompedonher shoulderandherfacewithhisfeetandkickedhersomemore.Themosquitonetcamelooseonallsides.Namikohowledlikeabeastanddidnotfightback.Thetwochildrensat andcriedfranticallyinthedark,terror­strickenattheirparents'fighting.35

Theviolencehere,asinthepassagefromLighting,isbluntandraw.Thereisnosubtletyintheconfrontation,thereisnowordplay,therearenoactionsthatimplya hiddenmeaning.Thesesceneshaveshockvalue;theyaresimultaneouslysofrightfulandsoseductivethatthereadercannothelpbutbedrawntothem.Ifusedtoo often,theywouldbecomedistasteful,butFumikoisgenerallycarefultousethemsparinglyenoughtopreventrepellingherreaders. ThistendencytodescribescenesinaroughmannermaybedueinparttotheinfluenceofFumiko'simpoverishedchildhood;beingthedaughterofitinerantpeddlers wouldhardlyhavetaughtherrefineddiction.Itmayalsobeduetoherexperiencesasayoungwoman,particu­

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larlythosewhileshewaslivingwithherabusivelover,NomuraYoshiya.CertainlythescenesinwhichshedescribesthefightsshehadwithNomuraarequitesimilarto thoseabove;suchasthefollowingscenefromDiaryofaVagabond: WhenItoldhimIdidn'twanthimaroundwhereIworked,Nomurapickedupanashtrayandthrewitatmychest.Ashesflewintomyeyesandmouth.Ifeltlikemyribboneshad beensnapped.WhenIranawayoutthedoor,Nomuragrabbedmyhairandthrewmetothefloor.IthoughtmaybeIshouldpretendtobedead.Hekickedmeoverandoveragain inthestomach.36

Despitetheimmediateunpleasantsensationthereadermayexperiencewhenreadingsuchpassages,thislackofsubtlety,allusion,orinnuendoalsomakesthework moreaccessibletoageneralaudience,asoneneednotmeditateonpossibleintricatenuances,norwadethroughpagesofpsychologicalintrospection.Thisisnotto saythatallofFumiko'swritingisalitanyofbluntnarrative;bothoftheheroinesinDriftingCloudsand"LateChrysanthemum"arenotedforthesubtletywithwhich Fumikoportraystheiremotions,andofcoursethereareplentyofotherworksinwhichshedisplayssimilarwritingskills.However,Ithinkthatheravoidanceof ruminationandadherencetostraightdescriptionofphysicaleventswithouttheinterjectionofcharacter'sthoughtsprobablyaccountsforagooddealofherpopularity. ReaderswhohadlittlepatienceforpagesofintellectualmeditationcouldfindimmediategratificationinreadingFumiko'sfast­pacednovels. Fumiko'sbluntlanguagealsoleaveslittleroomfordifferingreaderinterpretations:thereisnoquestionthatthecharactersheapabuseandviolenceupononeanother, andthatthisiswhattheauthorwantstoconvey.Shemakesnoattempttometaphorizetheseevents,tomaketheminsomewaypoetic,soft,orlyrical,ortodepict theminanabstractmanner.Instead,shepresentstheminthemostingenuousmannerpossible,herfrankvoicepresentingheraudiencewiththenakedtruth. AfterNomuraleftherin1926,Fumikosupportedherselfbysellingmanuscriptsandworkingasacaféwaitress,butHirabayashisoondecidedtomarryKoboriJinji (1901–1959),acolleagueofhers,whichleftFumikowithoutaroommate.ShetemporarilymovedbackhometoOnomichiandlivedwithherparents,whereshe wrotethefirstdraftoftheshortstory"Fukin*touonomachi"(TheAccordionandtheFishTown),whichisaboutherchildhoodinOnomichi.Shesoonreturnedto TokyoandrentedaroomwithmoneysheearnedworkingasawaitressinShinjuku.Itwasthenthat,whilevisitingHirabayashiTaiko'sformerloverIidaTokutaro*at hishomeinHongo,shemetapainternamedTezukaRokubin(1902–1989),themanshewouldeventuallymarry.37

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RokubinwasbornJanuary6,1902,thesecondsonofafarmingfamilyinNaganoPrefecture.WhenhemetFumiko,hewasstudyingWestern­stylepaintinginTokyo whilereceivinganallowancefromhome.Hewasaquietandfriendlyman,quiteacontrasttoFumiko'spreviouslovers.ThetwoweremarriedinDecember1926. YearslaterRokubinwouldchangehisfamilyregistrytoFumiko'sandtakehersurname,Hayashi.Healsolaterabandonedhispaintingcareer—althoughhecontinued topaintrecreationally—anddevotedhimselftopromotinghiswife'swritingcareer.Hemanagedthefamily'sfinancesshrewdlyenoughtoamassquiteanestate;even afterFumiko'searlydeathin1951,Rokubincontinuedtoliveoffestatefundsuntilhisowndeathin1989.Rokubinwasapatientandgood­naturedmanwhowasable tolivewithFumiko'shabitofdisappearingfordaysatatimewhenshesetoffontripsbyherself.Allrecordsindicatethatthetwoofthemhadahappymarriage, despitetheamountoftimetheyspentseparated;Fumikoalmostnevertraveledwithherhusband,andshespentquiteabitoftimeontheroad. InJanuary1927,FumikoandRokubinrentedanapartmentinShinjuku.Atthetime,Rokubinhadnotquitworkingyetandwaspaintingtheaterbackdrops.Thenin May,theymovedagaintoanotherrentedhouseinWadahori.Fumiko'sshortstory"Seihinnosho"(ARecordofHonorablePoverty,1931)wasbasedonthe couple'slifeduringthistime.InJuly1927RokubinwenttohishometowninNagano,afterwhichhepassedthroughOnomichi,wherehemetupwithFumiko,whohad arrivedthereearlieronherown.TheywenttogethertovisitOkanoGun'ichi(Fumiko'sfirstlove),thenwenttoTakamatsuandvisitedtherewithFumiko'sparents, KikuandKisaburo*,foraboutthreeweeks. InOctober1928,FumikopublishedAkigakitanda(AutumnHasCome),thefirstinstallmentofwhatwouldlaterbethenovelDiaryofaVagabondinthemagazine Nyoningeijutsu(WomenandtheArts).Themagazinehadbeenfoundedin1928byHasegawaShigure(1879–1941),aplaywrightandpoet.38Hasegawa's husbandandsponsorofWomenandtheArts,thewriterMikamiOtokichi(1891–1944),hadadmiredapoemofFumiko'sthatHasegawahadearlierpublishedin WomenandtheArts.FumikohadgiventhemanuscriptofAutumnHasCometoaneditorintheculturalaffairsdivisionatYomiurishinbun(TheYomiuriNews),a manbythenameofHayashiJoji*,buthehadthrownitinhisdeskdrawerandnotlookedatitfurther.Uponhearingthis,MikamimadearrangementsforWomenand theArtstoacquirethemanuscript,whichwassubsequentlypublishedandreceivedquitefavorablybythereadership.39Moredetailsonthepublicationhistoryof DiaryofaVagabondfollowinchapter2,buthereIshouldliketonotethattheappearanceofDiaryofaVagabondmarkedFumiko's

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truedebutasanauthor.Upuntilthattimeshehadpublishedahalf­dozenpoemsandshortstoriesinvariousmagazinesandnewspapers,butfewofthemwereof lastingconsequence.40 InJune1929,FumikopublishedananthologyofherpoetryentitledAoumaomitari(ISawaPaleHorse).Itwasthefirstofeightanthologiesshewouldpublish between1929and1939,anditwasperhapsthemostwellknown.Fumiko'sinterestinpoetrystartedwhenshewasquiteyoung,butitwasnotforherpoetrythatshe laterbecamefamous.Shepersistedinwritingpoems,though,andperhapsmoreofherpoetrywasreadaspartofherfiction—sheofteninsertedpoetryintoher prose—thanindependently.Ofthethirty­fourpoemsprintedinISawaPaleHorse,eighteenwereoriginallypublishedaspartofDiaryofaVagabond.41Shenoted intheprologueofISawaPaleHorsethatallthepoemshadbeenpublishedelsewherebeforebeingincludedintheanthology,butthedetailsofthatremain unclear.42Inanycase,ISawaPaleHorsewastheresultoftenyearsofwriting.43ThefavorableresponsethatbothISawaPaleHorseandDiaryofa VagabondreceivedpromptedotherpublisherstosolicitFumiko'smanuscripts. InJanuary1930,Fumikomadethefirstofmanytripsabroad:sheandseveralotherwomenwriterswentonalecturetourattheinvitationoftheGovernment­General ofTaiwan.44ThetraveloguesthatFumikowroteaboutthistrip,"Taiwanfukei*"(TheTaiwaneseLandscape,1930),"Taiwannosubuniiru"(ASouvenirfromTaiwan, 1930),and"Taiwanotabishite''(TravelinginTaiwan,1930)werethefirstofmanytraveloguesthatshewouldwriteinthecourseofhercareer.Between1930and 1943,Fumikowouldmakenofewerthanadozentripsabroadandherexperiencesonthosetripsbecameimportantmaterialforbothhertraveloguesandfiction. InAugust1930,DiaryofaVagabondbecameabestsellerwhenitwaspublishedaspartoftheShin'eibungakusosho*(ACollectionofNewLiterature)seriesby thepublishinghouseKaizosha*.Withtheproceedsfromthat,Fumikosetoffinmid­AugustonasolojourneytomainlandChina.ShetraveledthroughoutManchuria andthenontotheregionaroundShanghai,visitingthecitiesofHarbin,Changchun,Mukden,Fushun,Jinzhou,Sanshili,Dalian,Qingdao,Nanjing,Hangzhou,and Suzhouenroute.45ShereturnedtoJapanonSeptember25,1930.ManysourcesciteFumiko'slatertriptoParisin1931asthetreatshegaveherselfafterreceiving theproceedsfromthepublicationofDiaryofaVagabond,butalthoughtheParistripwascertainlypartiallyfinancedbythoseproceeds,itwasthetriptoChinain 1930thatwastheimmediaterewardofherliterarysuccess.46 Fumikospentthebeginningof1931travelinginJapanwithher,motherandgrandmother,publishingvariousshortstoriesincludingher

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famous"TheAccordionandtheFishTown,"andattendingvariousconferences.Intheendoftheyearshedecided,ratheronspurofthemoment,totakeatripto France.47InearlyNovember1931,attheageoftwenty­eight,FumikosetoutonherrailjourneytoParisviaKorea,Manchuria,Siberia,andEasternEurope.She arrivedinParisonDecember23,1931,whereshestayed,exceptforamonthlongsojourninLondon(January23–February25),untilMayofthefollowingyear. WhileinParis,FumikoattendednightschooltolearnFrench,althoughhertraveloguesfromthetimeindicatethatsheskippedclassoftenandwasnotseriousabout herstudies.Shealsospentaconsiderableamountoftimebeingatourist,travelingabouttoseevariousfamousplacesintheParisandLondonareas.Sheattendedthe theater,concerts,andfilms,andvisitedartmuseums,whereshewasparticularlyimpressedwithpaintingsbyPaulGauguin(1848–1903),PierreRenoir(1841–1919), JeanCorot(1796–1875),andMauriceUtrillo(1883–1955).48HerfriendswerepredominantlyfromtheJapaneseexpatriatecommunityinParis,whichmeantthat whileshewasnotverylonelyshedidnothavemanynativeacquaintances.HerfellowexpatriateskepthersuppliedwithrecentJapanesepublicationsandshetook advantageofthefreetimeshehadtodoconsiderableleisurereading.ShecontinuedtowriteandsendmanuscriptstoherpublisherswhileshewasinFrance.She generallyenjoyedhertimeinParis,buttheinabilitytocommunicateinFrenchbeyondtherudimentarylevelandthestrictbudgetonwhichshehadtolivemadeher wanttoleaveaftersixmonths. Byearly1932shehadrunoutofmoneyandEuropehadceasedtointerestherallthatmuch;shewrotetoherpublisheratthemagazineKaizo(Reconstruction)and askedformoneytopayforpassagehome.Themoneywassent,albeitafterasmalldelay.Thereturntripwasalsobookedonthird­class,butthistimeaboardthe Japaneseoceanliner,Haruna­maru.TheshipmadestopsinNaplesandShanghai,andinthelatterportFumikohadtheopportunitytomeettheChinesenovelistLu Xun(1881–1936),aboutwhomshelaterwroteanessay.49FumikoarrivedhomeinJapanonJune16,1932.50Itwasquiteanadventure;asdiscussedearlier, Fumiko'sforeignlanguagecapabilitieswerelimitedatbest.Moreover,inkeepingwithheropinionthattravelshouldbedonealone,shesetoutbyherself,whichis extraordinaryconsideringhergenderandthegeneralconservativeattitudetowardwomenatthetime.51 WhenFumikoreturnedtoJapan,herwritingwasverymuchindemand.DonaldKeenenotesthat,"Indeed,itisprobablynoexaggerationtosaythatshewasthemost popularwriterinthecountry."52FromherreturntoJapantoSeptember1933,shealsospentmuchtimetravelingdomestically,bothonlecturetoursandfor recreation."53This

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periodalsomarksthefirsttimethatFumikowasfinanciallysecure.Proceedsfromherwritingwerefinallysufficienttosupportherandherfamily;previouslyshehad givenwhatshecouldtoherstepfather,Kisaburo*,tosupporthisbusinessventures,butthesehadinvariablyfailed,soatthispointFumikosethimupinretirement.54 Shewritesinheressay"Chiisakikyochi*"(LittleViewpoint,1934)thatthefeelingsshehadforherstepfatherwerenotthoseshehadforhermother: IfIhadtomakesomesortofdecentdistinctionaboutit,Isupposemorethan"like"or"dislike"IwouldhavetosaythatIhavebeguntofeelpityformystepfather.ItisnotthatI ambotheredbythethoughtofhim,butthereisnothingIcandoaboutthefactthatmyaffectionsforhimdonotmatchthoseIhaveformymother.55

Kisaburo*'srepeatedfailuresinbusiness,whichcausedthefamilytolivehand­to­mouthandwhichlatercausedFumikotofeelobligatedtosendmoneyhomeeven whensheherselfwaslivingonanextremelyconstrainedbudget,contributedtothenegativefeelingsthatshehadtowardhim.56Shehadtriedtoencouragehimto retireearlier,buttonoavail;KikuandKisaburo*continuedtostartnewbusinessesandfailatthemuntilfinallytheyacceptedheroffertosupporttheminretirementin early1933.57Meremonthslater,inNovember,Kisaburo*contractedanacuteandfatalcaseofpneumonia.KikumovedinwithFumikoandRokubin,andthey livedtogether—althoughtheymovedfromresidencetoresidence—untilneartheendofFumiko'slife. OnSeptember4,1933,FumikowastakenintopolicecustodyonsuspicionofhavingpromisedfinancialsupporttotheCommunistParty.58Sheremainedincustody foreightdays;itwasanexperiencethatshewroteaboutlaterintheshortstory"Yumeichiya"(ANightofDreams,1947),inwhichtheheroineisimprisonedforten daysfor"thoughtcrimes,"althoughshedoesnotknowwhatshedidtobringsuchafateuponherself.Throughthevoiceoftheheroine,Fumikoruminatesonwhat "thought"is: Justwhatis"thought"?Isitsomethingyougetfromsomeone?Dopeoplehavetheirownthoughts?Thethoughtsthatpeoplehave,that'snot"thought,"butrathereach individual'sinterpretation.Justwhatisthought?"59

ThisshowsthatFumikowasthinkingaboutandquestioningthelegitimacyofthechargesagainsther.Beingtakenintocustodymusthavebeenarudeawakeningfor her,whoupuntilthattimehadonlydabbledinpoliticalandphilosophicalthought.Evenduringthedayswhenshespenttimewiththeleftistpoets,shewasnevera proponentofoneparticularschool,norwassheeverpoliticallyzealous,sobeingarrestedforherpoliticalpatronagewouldhavebeenashock.60

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Onethingwhichmayhaveleadtoandperpetuatedherreputationasapoliticalradicalwasherhabitofalludingtobigquestionsorissuesinherwritingwithoutfleshing outthedetailsoftheconcern.ItisdangeroustotrytoanalyzeFumiko'sunderlyingintentwithanygreatdepth,astheauthorherselfwasnotconcernedwiththedetails oftheallusion;rather,shewassatisfiedifherwritingcontainedsimplyasuggestionoftheissueathand,notadiscussionofit.Itwasasifshewantedthereadertobe awareoflargerquestionsinavagueway,awaythatwouldgivetheillusionofdepthandrichnesswithoutthecomplicationofprecisedetails.Sheseemedtohavea fearofstructuredideology,somethingthatmayhavebeenareactiontoherearlierdaysspentassociatingwiththeleftistpoets,anassociationthathelpedgetherjailed. Fumikowasnotonetobetrulyinterestedinacademicdiscussions,butsheseemedtotakecomfortintheknowledgethatsuchdiscussionsexisted.Shemade referencetothesediscussionsthroughtwomethods:first,theuseofliteraryandreligiousallusion;second,theuseofbroadquestionsthataskthereadertoreconsider commonlyheldtruths. Fumikomadeplentyofliteraryallusionsinherfiction;sometimescharactersreadfamousworks,sometimestheyrecallsomelessontheylearnedwhilereadingforeign works.Likealmostanyauthor,Fumikowroteaboutwhatsheknew,whichmeansthattheliteraryallusionsshemadewerefrombooksthatsheherselfhadread.She mentionsinheressaysthatshewasfondofRussianliterature,particularlytheworksofTolstoy,AntonChekhov(1860–1904),andFyodorDostoyevski(1821– 1881),andshealsoenjoyedtheworksoftheFrenchwriterGuydeMaupassant(1850–1893)andtheGermanpoetHeinrichHeine.Consequently,manyofFumiko's fictionalcharactersreadtheseauthors'works.Butnowhereinheressaysdoessheexplainindetailwhysheenjoyedthesewriters'works,nordoherfictional charactersdemonstrateclearlywhytheyreadwhattheyread.Rather,thesimplefactthatthecharactersarereadingacertainauthor'sworkitselfsatisfactorily demonstratesforFumiko'spurposeswhatsortofpeopletheyare.ThereisanassumptiononFumiko'spartthatthereaderwillappreciatethemeaningofthereference withoutfurtherexplication. AgoodexampleofthiscanbefoundinthenovelMukuge(RoseofSharon,1949),inwhichmuchismadeofthetitlesofthebooksthatthecharactersread,butlittle issaidofthebooks'contents.RoseofSharonisthestoryofayoungwoman,Yoko*,whohasmanydifferentloversbutneverseemstobecontentwithanyoneof them.Theonewithwhomshespendsthemosttime,Nogi,istoointellectualforhertastes.Shedislikessittingathomeandwaitingforhimtocomehomelatefrom work,soonedayasheisleavingforwork,hesuggeststhatshereadabookwhileshewaits:

Page21 "It'sraining,"Yoko*said. "Uh­huh." "Whydon'tyougotoworkabitlate?" "Istillhavetimetomakeit.I'mnotgoingtobepurposelylate.I'llbebackearly.Ifyou'rebored,tryreadingthosebooksoverthere." "Alright." "There'sSchnitzler'sLifeofaWoman—tryreadingthat.HaveyoueverreadMaupassant'sLifeofaWoman?" "Yes,Ihave." "That'salright,too.Schnitzler'sismuchmoreinteresting.Itwouldbeperfectreadingforyou." "Yeah,butIdon'tfeellikereading.Ijustsitaroundandwaitforyouallday...."61

TheycontinuetheirconversationaboutYoko'sdissatisfactionwithbeinghomealoneallday,untilNogihastoleaveforwork.Heplacesthebookinherhandsand leaveswithoutbreakfast.Yoko'syoungerbrother,Tomoji,comestovisitashortwhilelater: TomojitookTheLifeofaWomaninhishandandstartedleafingthroughit. "HeySis,therewouldn'tbeabookcalledTheLifeofaMan,wouldthere?Iftherewere,I'dsureliketoreadit,"heexclaimed. "Thelifeofamanisnothingbutroastingandeatingfoodbythefire,"Yokosaidlaughing,assheputsomericeinabasketandtookitandacookingpotdownstairs.62

Inthesepassages,itisthetitleofthebooks,TheLifeofaWoman,whichisimportant;thecontentsofthenovelsarenotdiscussedhereorlaterinthetext.The originaltitleofMaupassant'snovelisUneVie(ALife),theoriginaltitleofSchnitzler'snovelisTheresa:ChronikeinesFrauenlebens(Theresa:TheChronicleofa YoungWoman).IntheirJapanesetranslations,bothtitlesarerenderedintoOnnanoshogai*(TheLifeofaWoman),whichmakesitconvenientforFumikotodraw aparallelwheretheremaynotbeone. NogiseemstobetryingtosaysomethingimportantbypressingthebookonYoko,butbecausehedoesnotexplainwhyherecommendsSchnitzler'sbookover Maupassant's,norwhySchnitzler'swouldbe"perfectreadingmaterial"forYoko,thereaderisleftsuspectingthatthepassageismeaningful,withoutknowingexactly why.Laterinthenovel,weseeTomojireadingthebookwithfervor,butweneverhearhisthoughtsonit,nordoesthenarratortelluswhyhefindsitsointeresting. BothMaupassant'sUneVieandSchnitzler'sTheresaarenoteasilydismissedworks;bothcontainstrongsocialcommentarythatishardtoignore.Theformeristhe storyofanupper­classwoman,Jeanne,whomustdealwithalascivioushusbandandcriminalson.Thelatteris

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aboutapoorwoman,Theresa,whohasdozensofjobsandmanydifferentlovers—onebywhomshebearsanillegitimateson—butwhoneverfindshappiness.Ifone knowsthis,thenNogi'srecommendationtoYoko*ofSchnitzler'sbookoverMaupassant'smakesmoresense;TheresabearsmoreresemblancetoYokothan Jeannedoes.ButTheresa'sfrustrationsinlifearestillrelativelydifferentfromYoko's,andRoseofSharonasawholewouldhavebenefitedifFumikohadfleshedout Nogi'sreasoning. AsimilarlyvagueliteraryreferenceappearsinthenovelHato*(Billows,1939).Thisisthestoryofayoungwoman,Kuniko,whoescapeslifeintheboring countrysidebystealingsomemoneyfromherfatherandmovingtoTokyo.UnlikeYokoinRoseofSharon,Kunikoisinterestedinreadingandreadsquitea collectionofworks,butthemostprominentbookinhercollectionisMaupassant'sUneVie.FumikogivesthereaderalittlemoretocontemplateinBillowsthanshe doesinRoseofSharon,though;Kunikoreflectsthatherdrivetostrikeoutonherownandrejectherparents'arrangementsforhermarriagemaybeduetohaving readthebook: Tosetoutonherownlife,toholdtheidealoffindingherhusbandonherown,tothinksoclearlyaboutfeelingsuchhappiness—itmusthavebeenduetoreadingaboutthe miserablelifeofJeanneinTheLifeofaWoman...63

ThispassagetellsusatleastthatthelifeoftheprotagonistofUneVieisnotKuniko'sideallife,butitdoesnotgoanyfurther.Fumikodoesnotgiveeventhemost basicdetailsofwhyJeanneismiserable—somethingthatwouldonlyrequireafewsentences—andsotheunhappinessthatKunikowantstoavoidremainsanebulous concept. NoneofthisistosaythatitwouldhavebeenbetterifFumikohadnotmentionedthecharacters'readingmaterialatall.Certainlywearetoldsomethingaboutboth YokoandKunikoherethroughtheirresponsetotheactofreading.ThepointisthatFumikobaitsthereaderbymentioningthesethingsinpassingbutleavingthe detailsout.WedonotclearlyunderstandwhyYokorefusestoreadabookwhenshehasleisuretime.WedonotclearlyunderstandwhyKunikothinksthatJeanne's lifeismiserable.Allwedoknowisthattheactofreadingitself(ornotreading,asthecasemaybe)reflectsthecharacter'straits. ItiscuriousthatFumikomadesuchapointofmentioningotherliterature,especiallyforeignliterature,ifonlybecausesuchanactionisoftenassociatedwithawriter whohasgiventhatliteraturedeepanddetailedconsideration—thekindofstudythatwouldinvolvereadingintheoriginallanguageofpublicationandperhaps examiningsecondary

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sourcematerialpertinenttotheliterature.64AprominentexampleofFumiko'sunqualifiedreferencetootherliteratureisfoundinthegreatadmirationsheexpressed forLevTolstoy(1828–1910),especiallyhisnovelVoskresenie(Resurrection,1899),forinthatnovelTolstoycreatedcleardialogue—dialoguethatissocentralto thenovelthatonecanhardlydiscussthelatterwithoutaddressingtheformer—inwhichhischaractersdiscussedpolitics,philosophy,andliterature.Itisdifficultto imagineFumikoreadingResurrectionwithoutreactingtotheargumentslaidforthonitspages,yetthisiswhatshedid. Resurrectionisaboutthedemiseofayoungwoman,Katusha,who,afterhavinganillicitaffairwithherwealthymaster,Nekhludoff,isdiscardedandleftwithnothing butprostitutionasasourceofincome.Becauseofherlowsocialstatus,sheisconvictedofamurderthatshedidnotcommit.ShemeetswithNekhludoffathertrial, whereheisamemberofthejury.ThestoryisnarratedbyNekhludoff,whoismortifiedbytheguilthefeelsforinstigatingtheprocessthroughwhichKatushafellto suchdepravity.TheunderlyingimplicationisthatKatushaisatthemercyofherenvironmentandisunabletodowellonceshehasbeendefiledbyhermaster. Nekhludoffbelievesthis,forhefeelshisownactionsweretheprimaryenvironmentaldeterminantsofKatusha'sactions.Katushaherselfalsobelievesthis,forshe holdsNekhludoffresponsibleforwhathashappenedtoher. ComparedtoTolstoy'smorefamousAnnaKarenina(1877),Resurrectionisratherdidacticintone;initTolstoyexpresseshisdissatisfactionwithboththetraditional establishmentinRussiaandwiththeleftistideasthathadbeguntoproliferateatthetime.Neitherpoliticalsystemwassatisfactorytohim;thepoorwereoppressedby theupperclassintraditionalsocietybuttheleftists(whopromotedthepoor'scase)wereatheistsandTolstoywasadevoutChristian.Inordertoshowtheproblems inherentinbothpoliticalsystems,Tolstoycreatedtwocharacters,onefromeachcamp,whooftendiscusspoliticsandthroughthesetwomuchissaidaboutthepros andconsofeachideology.ThereisalsoaconsiderableamountofmeditationonsocialissuesonthepartofNekhludoff. Fumiko'sreadingofTolstoy—onethatseemsoblivioustothecomplexideologicalandtheologicalissuesbeingdealtwithinthenovel—showsadisregardfor complicatedacademicargument.WhatFumikodidseeinResurrectionwasthestoryofapoorwoman,muchlikeherselfinherDiaryofaVagabonddays.Her affinitywithKatushaseemstobethecorereasonwhytheworkheldsomuchappealforher,eventhoughtheTolstoycharacterdidnotsharetheanti­deterministic beliefsofthenarratorofDiaryofaVagabond. Fumikowroteapoemin1928entitled"ItoshinoKachusha*"

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(BelovedKatusha)inwhichshesaysthatbeingcalledKatushabysomeonemakesher"happierthanbeingcalled'YourHighness.'"65Thefinalstanzais: Katusha,thedaughterofserfs,endedupsounhappy Swirlingsnow,Siberia,prison,hardliquor,Nekhludoff ButI,whowasapoor,naivevirgin Embracedmyvasthopesandlikeanonioninahopper Wasraisedandsetoffintotheworld,largeandround.66

InthispoemshelikensherselftoKatusha,butotherthanthefactthattheybothcomefromimpoverishedbackgroundsthereislittlesimilaritybetweentheTolstoy heroineandthereal­lifeFumiko.Katushaistherepresentativeoftheoppressedunderclass,thepeoplewhoarefatedtosufferandareincapableofovercomingthe difficultiesthatfacethem.Tolstoymakesthisveryclearinthetext.Fumikomayhavebeenpoor,butinherearlyworkssheneverexpressedresignationtoherfate. EventheslightestdelvingintowhatKatusharepresentswouldhaveshownthatFumikowasnotfundamentallylikeher.ButFumikodidnotlookthatfar;shesawa poorwomanandsoshesawherself.SheignoredthepoliticalandsocialcommentarythatTolstoywoveintothetext,andinsteadchosetofocusonsurface characteristics. Fumiko'sdistastefordetailedexaminationofacademicandphilosophicalissuescanalsobeseeninhertreatmentofreligioninbothherfictionandheressays.Shewas notaChristian,althoughshehadacertainamountofinterestinreadingstoriesfromtheBible,andsheenjoyedattendingchurchserviceswhenshewasayoung womanlivinginTokyo.InOnePerson'sLife,shesays: IstartedgoingtochurcheverySunday[afterImovedtoTokyo].IsupposeyoucouldsaythatIfirststartedthinkingaboutwritingwhenIheardabitofasermononthestreetone dayandthoughthowitmightbehelpful.Inchurch,onespokefreely,andIheardthingswhichIhadneverheardbefore.ItwastherethatIalsolearnedthenamesofforeign writers.Judas'betrayal,thestoryofAbraham,Noah'sflood—beinganewcomertothebigcityIsoakedthemalluplikemosssoaksupwater.Ilearnedquitealot,albeit haphazardly,fromthesefreelectures.Despiteallthis,IstilllovedtheworksofShelley,whohadbeenhoundedoutoftheuniversityforespousingtheideasofatheism.... Forme,toopoortopassthroughthegatesofanyvocationalschool,churchwaslikemyownuniversity.Itsoothedmyspiritandcomfortedme,andforthatIwasgrateful.Itwas atchurchthatIlearnedaboutmedievalreligionandliterature.IwasnotthekindoftruebelieverwhowouldfalltoherkneesbeforeGod,butIfeltastrongfeelingforfaithin something....Imusthavebeenaterriblepessimist

Page25 towardlifebeforeIhadfaithinGod.WheneverIfeltuneasy,Iwouldgotochurchandlistenvacantlytothedistant,eternalsermon,anditwouldcalmmyfeelingsofperil.67

WecanseethatFumikowasfondofChristianmythologyandthatshefeltacertaincomfortwheninchurch.Butthelanguagesheusestodescribethesethingsis purposelynoncommittal:"faithinsomething"and"listenvacantlytothedistanteternalsermon"donotimplyaspecificadherencetoChristiandoctrine.Shefeltthat religionwasimportant,andshehadrespectforthe"truebelievers,"butshedidnotsharetheirfervor.Rather,theknowledgethatthereexistedsomegreaterpower andthatthereexistedacarefullycraftedstructureoforganizedreligiontocommunicatethewisdomofthatpowertothecommonmanwasallthatFumikowantedto understand;shedidnotwanttounderstandthepowerorknowtheactualstructure(i.e.,Christiandoctrine).Herreverencefororganizedreligionwasnotlimitedto Christianity,either.SherecognizedtheimportantrolethatShintoismandBuddhismplayedinJapanesesociety—arolethatbondedthecommunityandprovidedmoral structure—andshewasdistressedtoseethatrolediminishing.InherjournalSakkanotecho*(Author'sNotebook,1951)shecommentsonthechangesevidentin bothBuddhismandShintoisminmodernJapan:68 Templeshavebecomejustsomeplacewherethereisalargesittingroom.Theyaren'tSundaymeetingplacesforvillagers,butrathertheyhavebecomebuildingsthatareonly usefulforfunerals.IthinkthatJapaneseBuddhismmustbereconsidered.69

Shegoesontonotehowfolkreligionhasbecomeequallycorrupt.ShedoesnotsaythattheJapaneseshouldembraceChristianity;shemerelysuggeststhatthe Japanesepeopleshouldtakenewstockintheirreligiousbeliefs,whichsuggeststhatshefelta"strongfaithinsomething"wouldbebeneficialtoothers,aswellas herself.Furtherdefinitionofreligiousbeliefsdidnotinteresther,however.InnoplacedoesshediscussindividuallessonsfromtheBibleorfromtheBuddhistsutra*, oranydetailsfromanyreligiousdoctrine. Fumikodoesoccasionallyquestionthevalidityoforganizedreligion,andthesequestionsechothedistrustshedisplaystowarddefinedstructuralarguments.Inthe followingpassagefromDiaryofaVagabond,FumikohearsthecriesofSalvationArmyvolunteersandreactsbyquestioningthegoodoforganizedreligionforthe poor: Poorpeopledon'thavethetimeorenergytobelieveinJesusChristorShakyamuni.Justwhatisreligion?![TheSalvationArmyvolunteers]don'thavetoworryaboutwheretheir nextmealiscomingfrom,that'swhytheyspreadoutinlittlegroupsintothestreets.70

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Fumiko'scharactersoftenvacillateonreligiousquestions,unabletomakefirmstatementswithoutdoubt,whichimpliesthatanythingbutblind"faithinsomething"may betoomuchformentocontemplate,asinthefollowingisadialoguefromKawauta(RiverSong,1941).Thisisthestoryoftwowomen,Kikuyoandherformer teacher,Hisako.HisakoteacheselementaryschoolandamongherstudentsisagirlnamedShimagiwhoisparticularlyprecocious.Hisakotakesaspecialinterestin Shimagiandtriestoprovideherwiththeguidancethatshesodesperatelyneeds.Oneday,ShimagiasksHisakoabouttheoriginoftheworld: "Say,sensei,whocreatedtheworld?"Shimagisaid,changingthesubject. "ThatwouldbeGod,"saidHisako....Butsheherselfcouldnotgraspclearlytheimageof"God." "Youknow,latelyIhavebeenthinkingallaboutweirdthings—Ithinkitwilldrivemetoanervousbreakdown,"saidShimagi.71

EventhoughHisakocanassuredlysaythat"God"createdtheworld,shecannotquitegraspwhattheconcept"God"is.Shimagidismissesfurtherruminationonthe subjectbysayingthatsuchthingsarejusttoomuchtocontemplate.Liketheauthor,thecharactersdisplayadisinterestincomplexissues.Thissceneischaracteristic ofthewayinwhichFumikodealswithallphilosophicalquestions.Itisenoughforthecharacterstohavevaguenotionsofissues;anymorewouldbetoomuch,asit wouldrequirethatthecharacters—nottomentiontheauthorherself—takeafirmstandonphilosophicalissues,somethingFumikowasnotinterestedindoing. SuccessasaWriter Theyears1934and1935sawFumikobusilytravelingaroundthecountrygivinglecturesandpayingvisitstofriendsandsupporters.Shewaswritingandpublishing manyshortstories,butthemainpublicationsfromtheseyearsweresecondeditionsoftheworksthatmadeherfamous:DiaryofaVagabondand"ARecordof HonorablePoverty."InSeptember1935,Fumikopublishedoneofhermostcelebratedshortstories,"Kaki"(TheOyster,1935),aboutayoungman,Shukichi*, whoselifeisadownwardcurveintofailure.Threethingsmade"TheOyster"differentfromotherstoriesFumikohadwrittenuptothatpoint:ithasastorylinethatis notbasedontheauthor'spersonalexperiences,itfeaturesamaleprotagonist,andithasmaturecharacterdevelopmentheretoforeunseeninFumiko'swriting.Fumiko hadwrittennonautobiographicalstoriesbefore,but"TheOyster"wasatruedepar­

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tureinthatitsprotagonist,Shukichi*,sharesnothingincommonwithFumiko,savehispenury.While''TheOyster"wasasuccessful,popularwork,itstillhadone majorfault:init,Fumikotriestousepoliticalvocabularytowriteabouttheplightoftheworkingclass,butherdaysspentwiththeleftistpoetsintheFrenchrestaurant wereoverandhersympathiestowardleftistmovementswerenotstrongenoughtomakethepoliticalpassagesconvincing. "TheOyster"isthestoryofamanwholoseshisjobsewingcheapsatchelsbecausehisemployermechanizestheshop.Helosesself­respect,andgraduallygoes insanewithparanoia.Thestoryistouchinginplaces—FumikodepictsShukichi'sfalteringrelationshipwithhiscommon­lawwifequitewell—butdidactic.The narrator'semphasisonShukichi'soppressionisexcessiveandtheleftistlecturesaretoostiltedtofitsmoothlyintothetext.Inthefollowingscene,Shukichiwarnsa friendandfellowworker,Tomikawa,aboutwhatwillbefalllaborerssuchasthemselvesinthefuture: Maybeyouhaven'theardyet,butitseemsthere'sanewfactoryinMinodathat'sstartedmassproductionoflowgradegoods.IguessallthatstockstoredinOsaka*willbe countedaswastedlaborwages.Themarketwillbeoverflowingwithmachine­sewncheapleather.Howwretchedwe'llbe!Andwhentheboss­manexpandsthefactory,evenhand satchelsandChiyodapurseswillbespitoutbymachines.I'vegottoconsiderthemattercarefully.It'sallgettingquiteperilous,isn'tit?Idon'tlikethethoughtofit,butIsuppose Icouldalwaysstartatempurashop—youknow,servesashimiandboiledvegetables—likethosestoresinTengin.Ican'tcontinuemakingabigdealaboutbeinganartisanof azumasatchels.72

ThislanguageisthatofapoliticallyawareLuddite,notthatofatimidmanwhoisslowlybecomingmentallyunstable.FumikotriedtomakeShukichibothavictimand amouthpiece,butitdoesnotworkwell.Thereaderisexpectedtosympathizewithhim,butthatisdifficultwhenhepersistsinself­destructivebehaviordespitethefact thathehasdemonstratedastrongpoliticalawarenessofhisplight. Themainproblemwith"TheOyster"isthatFumikowaswritingonsomethingaboutwhichsheherselfhaddoubts.Shukichi'sthoughtsaremechanical,andFumiko neverexplainsexactlywhyheissofondofhislow­payingjob.Heworksslowly,andthefinishedproductismediocre.Thereadermightexpecthimtojumpatanew opportunity,butinsteadheregressesintoparanoiawhentheprospectoffactorymechanizationappears.Beingaself­madewomanwhodidnotromanticizepoverty, Fumikohaddifficultyportrayingasympatheticprotagonistwhodid.Moreover,thevocabularyoftheleftistmovementdidnotsuitherwritingstyle;stiffwordssuchas "wages"(kochin*)soundawk­

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wardembeddedinparagraphsthatdealwithintenseemotion.Twoyearsafterwriting"TheOyster,"Fumikocalledtheincentivewhichdrovehertowriteita"foul wind."73 Nonetheless,inresponsetothesuccessof"TheOyster,"Fumikoheldacommemorativegathering(kinenkai)tocelebrateitspublicationonNovember14,1935.The numberoffamouswriterswhoattendedatteststothefameandacceptancethatFumikohadgained;guestsincludedUnoKoji*,HirotsuKazuo,Sato*Haruo(1892– 1964),TokudaShusei*,HayashiFusao(1903–1975),HasegawaShigure,YoshiyaNobuko(1896–1973),andSataIneko(b.1904).Fumikopaidfortheentire event,aconsiderablesumof254yen.74Shehadarrivedontheliteraryscene. TherewasanothereventthatsignalledFumiko'sacceptanceintothebundan.75InJune1936,theFrenchwriterJeanCocteau(1889–1963)stoppedinJapanwhile hewasonaworldtour.FumikowasselectedbyKikuchiKan(1888–1948),oneofthemostprominentfiguresinthebundan,tobehisrepresentativetogoandmeet CocteauattheKabukiTheaterandpresenthimwithabouquetofflowers.FumikohadmetCocteaubeforeinFrance,whichwasprobablyoneofthereasons Kikuchiselectedher,butKikuchiwouldnothavechosenhersolelyforthatreason. However,evenafterFumikowasanestablishedandacceptedwriter,shewascriticalofthebundananditstendencytobeanold­boynetwork.Inhercollectionof essaysSosakunoto*(CreativeNotebook,1938)shesaysthatthebundanwasancuriousentitybecauseitgavenoconsiderationtoanythingpublishedinwomen's magazines.Shewentfurthertosaythatthereasonyoungwriterswereunabletowritewithanyfreedomwasbecausetheliteraryworldrefusedtoextendahelping handfrombehindthehighwallswithwhichitsurroundeditself.76ThegrudgethatFumikoharboredagainsttheestablishmentdidnotpreventherfrombecomingan acceptedpartofit,butsheneverseemedeagertobuildliteraryfriendshipsforthesakeofsocialconnections. ButwhatprovidedFumiko'sincentivetowrite?Whatwasherliterarymuse?DuringandimmediatelyaftertheyearsthatshewaswritingDiaryofaVagabond, Fumikowrotevariousessaysinwhichshesaysthatshefeltcompelledtowrite,thatwritingforherwasacomfort,andthatshesimplydiditbecausesheenjoyedit immensely.Writingwasadifficulttaskforher,evenifshefeltnaturallydriventodoit.Inher1935essaySeikatsu(EverydayLife),shedescribedhowshespenther days:shefilledthedaylighthourswithreadingthenewspaperanddoinghouseholdchoresbecauseshefoundotherpeople'spresencesodistractingthatshecouldonly workintheearlymorninghours,whenthehousewasdarkandquiet.Thestructureoftheessayreflectsthe

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wayshespentherday;itjumpsfromonesubjecttoanother,unabletofocusononetopic,untilfinallyitsettlesupondescribingtheprocessofwriting: Whentheclockstrikesten,everyoneinthehousesaystheirgoodnights.Ifinditscarywitheveryoneinbed,soImaketheroundsofthehouse,checkingallthelocks.ThenI makeamidnightsnackinthekitchenandtakeitupstairs.I'mveryhappyifwehavesomesaltedkombuanddriedbonitoonhand.It'sbeenchillylately,andthere'snothingIcan doaboutthecoldtakingitstollonmybody.Ilongtowriteaverse...andasduskcomes,Iendupsittinginfrontofmydesk,savoringthepainandjoythatwritingbringstome.I haveaWesternstylechair,soIgetcoldwhenIsitwritingforhoursatatime.Thethingthatisthemosthateful—themostcruel—whenIamwritingisbeingheldupforhours searchingforonewordinthedictionary,allthewhilefeelinglikeI'moverflowingwithemotionsthatIneedtogetdownonpaper.MydictionaryisaStudent'sPracticeDictionary thatIboughtforseventy­fivesenwhenIwasloafingaboutinTakamatsuinShikoku,andit'squitedog­earednow.I'veboughtplentyofdictionariessincethen,butultimatelyI prefertousethisone,eventhoughtherearen'tenoughentries.WhenIthinkaboutit,Ireallydolivethelifeofacountryschoolgirl.IfIwereaskedtowritesomethingaboutmy life,Iwouldbegintofeelstrangeaboutthefactthatmylifeissounspectacular.77

Oftenherlatenightvigilsprovedunfruitful,asshecouldbedistractedbytheslightestofstimuliaroundher.Sheexpressedthisbestinapoem,alsointheessay "EverydayLife": Theclockstruckone Everyonemustbeasleep Theirbreathingsoundslikeanavalanchefivethousandmilesaway Twoo'clock,Threeo'clock Mypaperisstillblank Astheclockstrikesfour thebrazierrunsoutofcoal Iopentherainshuttersandgototheshedformore Graspingthecoallightlyinmyhandsismorepleasant Thanthechoreofwritingwords Somewhereacagedwarblercriesout78

Alone,infrontofherdesk,Fumikostruggledwiththeemotionalneedtowrite.Shetriedtoexplainthatneedoften,althoughhersentencesoftenendinindeterminate reasoning.Shecouldonlysaythatshefeltwritingtobeextremelypleasurable,andthatshewishedshecoulddoitbetter.Inheressay,"Literature,Travel,Etc.,"she describeswhatwritingmeanstoher:

Page30 AlthoughIstillcannotbelievethatsomeonelikeme,withmediocretalentsandpooreducation,cansupportherselfwritingnovels,Ifindthatuncertaintyindescribablyenjoyable.. ..Ialsothinknothingofstayingupallnightfortwoorthreedaysatatime.OnceIsetinonmywork,Ican'teatathing;allIcandoisdiligentlyfacethepaperbeforeme.But perhapsthisstateofbeingisonethatonlyotherwriterscanunderstand.Howpleasingitis!Writinganovelisaspleasingashavingone'sloverwaitingforone. I'veenjoyedreadingsinceIwasachild,anditisbecauseofthispleasurethatIhaveenduredthisfar,notdoingmyselfin.IamatrueoptimistandIhategloomythings;despite that,Idedicatemyselftoloneliness.IfeelIhavecomethisfarthroughthehungerandlongingIhaveforliterature.Evennow,mygoalsareconstanthungerandconstantlonging. ...Iamsofullofambitionthatmyselfishnessbordersondisgusting....I'vebeenkeepingadiaryforaboutfiveyearsnow.Ikeeptowritingonepageeverydayformy newspapernovel,althoughtherearedayswhenImanagetowritethreeorfourpages.Icannotsimplyloungeaboutuntilthemoodtowritestrikesme,likethewritersofoldwould do.Loungingaboutwouldmakemestupid.Thereisnopointinimposingstupidityuponstupidity. Nomatterhowdifficultitmaybe,Imakeitapointtositmyselfdownatmydeskatleastonceadayinanefforttogrowaccustomedtosucharoutine.Forsomeoneofmediocre ability,thereisnorecoursebuthardwork.79

ThereisnodoubtFumikowasdeterminedtobecomeasuccessfulwriter,butaftershepublishedDiaryofaVagabondshewasalittleoverwhelmedbytheattention showereduponher.Suddenlyshewantedtoescapefromthelifeshehadcreatedforherself,oneofdailyforcedwork,andonethatmadeherself­consciousofher writinginawayshedisliked.ShecommentsinanessayonDiaryofaVagabond: Writingfictionisnotanenjoyableactivityinthesensethatotherpeopleseewhatyouaredoing.SometimesIthinkaboutgivinguponwritingaltogether.Itwouldbegreattogo backtowritinglikeIusedto—naturallyinspiredandwritingwhatIwanttowrite.AndnobodywouldseewhatIwasdoing.IwroteDiaryofaVagabondwithoutthinkingabout publishingit.Manycriticshaveofferedtheiropinionsonthatpiece,buttomethey'reallludicrous.DiaryofaVagabondwaswrittenduringatimethatIhadnopublisher.Itgoes withoutsayingthatIhadnointentionofpublishingit.ThatiswhyIwrotesuchapieceinthefirstplace.80

TheInfluenceofYokomitsuRiichi Fumikodidnotbelongtoanywriters'groupandshecontributedmanuscriptstoalmostanypublisherorperiodicalthatrequestedthem,

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whichpreventedcriticsfromeasilyplacingherinanyspecificschoolofwriting.Weknowthatearlyonshewasinfluencedbytheleftistpoets,butthatinfluencewore thinquickly.Anotherinfluence,heretoforegivenlittlenoticebycritics,wasthatofYokomitsuRiichi(1898–1947),awriterwhosenameispredominantlyassociated withmodernismandtheNewSensationalistSchool(Shinkankakuha),agroupofwritersactiveinthelate1920s.Yokomitsuexperimentedwithvariouswritingstyles duringhislifetime,andtwoofthosestylesarereflectedinFumiko'swriting:theNewSensationalistSchoolstyleasusedinYokomitsu'sshortstories"Maketa otto"(TheDefeatedHusband,1924)and"Atamanarabinihara"(HeadsandBellies,1924),andthedense­textstylethatheusedinhisshortstory"Kikai"(The Machine,1930). YokomitsuhimselfwasgreatlyinfluencedbyanumberofEuropeanwriters,includingMarcelProust(1871–1922)andPaulAmbroiseValéry(1871–1945),andhe wasintentuponexperimentationthatwoulddepartfrompreviouslydominantwritingstyles.81HetooktheNewSensationalistSchoolmovementquiteseriouslyand attempted(albeitratherincoherently)todefinewhatthemovementstoodforandwhatvirtuesitswritinghad.82 Yokomitsu's"TheDefeatedHusband,"alongwithotherearlyworks,isdescribedas"markedbyshortsentencesandby'jumps'fromonestatementtothenextwithout logicalconnections."83WhatYokomitsuwastryingtodointhisandotherNewSensationalistSchool­styleworkswastodepictascenesolelybyrecordingthe sensationsexperiencedbythenarrator,withoutanyemotionalresponseorsubjectiveinterpretation.Thesentencesaregenerallyshort,evenabrupt,andpresentvivid imagesofscenery: Alittlegirlwithperfectlynormallegswaslimpinghurriedlyalongimitatingacripple.Afterhercameatruckracingalongjammedtightwithpolicemen.Theloadofpolicemenstood silentlyprotrudingabovethecablikeblackstamens.Acarfollowedafterthem.Therewasagirlinsidewhowastired.Thewoodenbridgeshookasthevehiclespassedover.He cametothemainroadandturnedright.Severaltramsflewbyshakingtheirhumanbundlestotherear.Thecrammedfleshricochetedinsidethesquaretrams.Whirlpoolsofsickly fragrantlust,boundingandleaping.84

Eachsentencepresentsnewstimuli,muchlikeasetofbright,flashinglightsbeforethereader'seyes.Thereislittletoindicatetheresponseoftheprotagonisttohis surroundings;Yokomitsudependsonthestarkimagerytogiveasobjectiveadescriptionofthesceneaspossible.WhenFumikowroteinasimilarstyleinDiaryofa Vagabondandsomeofthe

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traveloguesfromParis,shekeptthe"jumps"butaddedalyricalqualitytothem.Thefollowingpassage,fromDiaryofaVagabond,describesthenarratorandher friend,Kimi,relaxingafterspendingthedaytogether: Thetwoofuslookedoutsilentlyatthedistant,cold,vastocean.Iwanttobeacrow.Ithinkitwouldbenicetogoonatrip,carryingasmallsatchel.Kimi'sJapanese­stylecoiffure wasblownaboutbythewind,anditlookedforlorn,likeawillowonasnowyday.85

HereFumiko,likeYokomitsu,usesshortsentencesandjumpsfromobservationtoobservation,butthedifferencebetweenthispassageandYokomitsu'sisclear; whereYokomitsutriedtowriteinastylethatexpressedonlyobjectiveobservationsdevoidofallsubjectivityimposedbyanarrator,Fumikoincludedthedesiresof thenarrator(byusing"Iwant"and"Ithink")andherimpressionsofhercompanion("[herhair]lookedforlorn").86 InFumiko'stravelogue,"Rondonnogeshukusonota"(ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters,1932)thenarrativemakessuchjumpsastobenearly incoherent.TheparagraphprecedingthefollowingpassagetellsusthatFumikohasboughthertickettoLondon,andthengoestoalittletheaterwhereafilmof Cocteau'sisbeingrun: Atthetimeofdeath,justalittleofJeanCocteau'sstorieswouldbegood. Ah,couldtherepossiblybesuchaselfishnovelistinJapan?Towritebyoneself,todirectbyoneself,torecitepoetrybetweenacts,tolaughbyoneself,toviolentlyjostlethe audience,theaudiencewasstupefied. "Whatisthat?" "Thenonsenseofapoet.Foreigners'nonsenseisthatsortofthing." "Itisanaltogethermeaninglessfilm." "I'mstunned.It'sreallywonderful." "Oh,writingnovelshasbecomesohateful." JeanCocteauaskedinwardly,"What,areyousurprised?" Itwasafilmwithnoplot—Venuswentoutforawalk,awomanoncanvashadherlipspeckedat,peopleenteredmirrors,slowlytheybecamewater,ahh,howfrightening...Iwon't beabletosleep.Ontheothersideofthemirrortherewerefiverooms.Itwasatraumatichotel,1)RoomforAscendingTeachers,2)OpiumRoom,3)RendezvousRoomforThose WhoHadLostHope,4)SuicideRoomforMexicanRevolutionaries,5)RoomforTeachersofThieves—theaudiencewasdrivencrazy.Onerealizedthequalityoftheprintwhen thenegroangelwasseenthroughfrombehind.Thenegrobecamewhite,andIhadneverbeforeseenamoviethatdealtsobeautifullywithblackandwhite.

Page33 "Buttheroadislong." JeanCocteauappearedfrombehindthesilencedblackandsilvercurtaintoreciteapoemaboutasnowballfight.87

Eventheapparenteclecticnatureofthefilmthatsheseemstobedescribingcannotbefullyresponsibleforthe"jumps"inthispassage,particularlyinthedialogue.With nonarrativebetweenquotes,theaudience'sspeechstandsstarklyisolatedfromtherestofthetext,muchinthesamewaythattheimagesofthelimpinggirlandtruck ofpolicemendointheabovepassagefrom"TheDefeatedHusband."FumikomakesitevenmoreperplexingbywritingmanyFrenchandEnglishwordsinhiragana, notsetofffromtherestofthetextinanyway.88Thesectionoftextimmediatelyfollowingthispassageisequallydisjointed: N'est­cepas! IputdownthesmalltrunkIhadbroughtwithmefromJapanandwenttothenorthernparkingarea.WhyisitIamsuchastickleraboutbringingalongmybaggage?Isn'tthat wastepaperrattlingaroundinthebottom? Adieu,universitystudentsofParis!Isaid,andshakinghands,theygavemeaphotographofmestandinginthemiddleofafieldandtoldmeitwasasouvenir. Whoissolitary?Itisbecauseoftheirsolitudethatpeoplebecomelikable.SendusaletterwhenyougetbacktoJapan. "Yes,youtoo"Hayashi.Fumiko.Gotit?Comprendspas!89 "Iunderstand.Yournameisbois,toomanytrees."90

Thisistheendofthesection;thereisnofurtherexplanationofthescene.Ifrearrangedonthepage,thetextwouldperhapsreadbetteraspoetrythanasprose,asone isaccustomedtoincompletesentencesandvagueintimationsinpoetry,whereprosegenerallydemandsmorepreciselanguage.Thisstyleofwritingappealedto Fumikoiffornootherreasonthanitdeviatedfromthenorm,andshewasthefirsttotrynewthingssimplybecausetheywerenew.Sheusedthisstylepredominantly intheearly1930s,duringwhichtimeshealsowrotesomeworksthatdonotsharethesamequalities—perhapsanindicationthatshewasexploringdifferentstylesin searchofonethatsuitedher. ThesecondofYokomitsu'sstylesmentionedabove,thedense­textstylefoundinhisshortstory"TheMachine,"wasrevolutionarywhenitfirstappeared.Thewriter Ito*Sei(1905–1969)describedhisownreactionto"TheMachine"asfollows: In1930YokomitsuRiichisuddenlychanged.Thiswas"Kikai"["TheMachine"],whichappearedintheSeptemberissueofKaizo*....Ihadjustboughtthemagazineandstarted toread"TheMachine"asIwaswalkingalongthemainstreetinUshigome,andtheimpressionitmade

Page34 wassuchthatittookmybreathaway.Hehadsuddenlydroppedthejumpy,impressionistic[NewSensationalistSchool]method...andwasnowapproachingastylethatwas flexible...inwhichthelanguagewentforwardwithoutintermissionandtheprintedtexthadhardlyanindentationinit,thetypeliterallycrammedonthepage.91

ThestylethatIto*referstoisperhapsmostnoticeablewhenthereaderfirstsetseyesontheprintedpage;paragraphbreaksarerare,dialogueisinsertedintotexts withnopunctuationmarks,andsentencestendtobelongerthannormal.Readingsuchadenselyprintedtextisatiringactivity,butthedrawofthenarrativepullsone alonguntil,pageslater,thereisabreakinthenarrativewhereonecanliftone'seyesfromthepage. FumikowroteaboutherownimpressionofYokomitsu'swritinginthefollowingway: RecentlyIhavebeenreadingYokomitsuRiichi'swork.Thereisnospacebetweenhiswords,norawastedbreathbetweenhissentences.Iwastireduponthefirstreading.Upon thesecondreadingIfeltasortofattractiontowardhiswork,anduponthethirdreading,Ihadgreatrespectforhisstyle.Yokomitsu'sstyleissomethingthatIcouldnotachieve evenifItriedoverthecourseofdecades.Iwonderifthereisanybodyintheworldofproletarianliteraturewhohassuchafirmlyrootedstyle?Ihavethoughtoftryingtowritemy "literatureofpoverty"inthissortofdensestyle,usingmuchhiragana,butformeitisstillquiteadifficulttask.92

Thiswaswrittenin1931.Intheyearsthatfollowed,Fumikopublishedmanyworksthatusedthesametightlypackedstyleof"TheMachine,"someofwhichwere: "Izumi"(TheSpring,1936),"Meian"(LightnessandDarkness,1936),"Hototogisu''(TheCuckoo,1938),"Bangiku"(LateChrysanthemum,1948),"Yoruno komorigasa*"(EveningUmbrella,1948),"Suisen"(Narcissus,1949),"Gyuniku*"(Beef,1949),and"Hone"(Bones,1949).Butnoneoftheseworkscopiedanything morethanthephysicalstructureoftheprintedpage.Like"TheMachine,""TheSpring"and"LightnessandDarkness"bothhavetightlypackedtextwithfewbreaks andbothmakeliberaluseofhiragana,butthisiswherethesimilarityends.93WhereasYokomitsuwroteinlong,flowingsentences,Fumikocouldonlymanagetodo soforthefirstfewpagesof"TheSpring,"afterwhichsherevertedtoherfamiliarshort,choppysentences.In"LightnessandDarkness"thetextbeginswithshort sentencesthatneverchangetolongerones.Thetexts'appearanceonthepagereflectsthedensestyleinwhichFumikosaidshewishedshecouldwrite,buttheydo notcausethereadertofeelpulledalongbythenarrative,as"TheMachine"does,becausetheylackan

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importantelement:streamofconsciousness.In"TheMachine,"therearefewconvenientbreaksforthereader,fewplaceswherehecanlifthiseyesfromthepagefor amomentofintrospection;hefeelsconstantlypulledbythenarrativetocontinuereading.Thestreamofconsciousnessin"TheMachine"doesnotclearlydistinguish onethoughtfromthenext;itrecordsacontinuous,ratherthandiscrete,seriesofthoughts.TanigawaTetsuzo*describedYokomitsu'sstylein"TheMachine"as "'arabesque­like'associationist"writing,referringtothenaturalflowofthetextinwhichthenarratorstringstogetherhisthoughts,feelings,andsensations.94The smoothnessoftheflowispartiallyduetoconsistentfirst­personnarrationandisaidedbytheabsenceofdialogue;theresultingtextisoneconstantchainofthought producedbyonevoice.However,"TheSpring''and"LightnessandDarkness"neverachievethis"associationist"qualitybecausethenarrativesaretoldinthethird personandareinterruptedbydialogue.WhenFumikosetouttowriteinthestyleofYokomitsu,tocreateatextthatwouldattractherreadersthewayshedescribes beingattractedbyYokomitsu'swork,shedidnottakethenecessityofafirst­personnarratororstreamofconsciousnessintoconsideration.Theresultistextsthattire thereader(asshesaidYokomitsu'sdiduponfirstreading)butfailtocaptivatehim. TheInfluenceofTokudaShusei* AnotherwriterwhostronglyinfluencedFumikowasTokudaShusei.ShemetShuseiin1924inTokyowhenhewasalreadyafirmlyestablishedwriterandshehadyet topublishanything.Hegaveherabitofmoneytohelpheralong,andtheirlong­lastingfriendshipwasestablished.FumikowasfondofShusei'swritingandshe complimentedhiminheressays,sayingthatsheadmiredthefactthathewelcomedhervisitsdespitethefactthatshewaspoorandhadnointroduction.95Shedoes note,however,thathenevertookalookathermanuscriptsinthewayamentormightbeexpectedtodo.96Theirrelationshipwasmoreofaprofessionalfriendship thanthatofmentoranddisciple.Still,therearesomesimilaritiesintheirwritingworthnoting.97 Perhapstheirmostprominentsimilaritylayinsubjectmatter;bothwriterswroteoftenaboutpeoplewholivedinpoverty.Ofcourse,thisinitselfwascertainlynot uniqueduringtheheydayofproletarianliterature(the1920s),butwhatmadeFumikoandShusei'swritingdifferentfromtherestwastherelativelackofleftistpolitical polemics.NeitherwriterwasinterestedinportrayingthelowerclassesinawaythatwouldpromotetheMarxistideaofbourgeoisoppressionoftheproletariat.Itwas simplythatpovertywasfamiliartobothwriters,and

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itwasnaturalforthemtowriteaboutthatwhichtheyknewbest.Shusei*wascriticizedbySoseki*forwritinganovelthat"hadnophilosophy."98Fumiko,however, didnottotallyavoidphilosophicalstatementsinherwriting;rather,herstatementswerevague,andwhencharacterswhoareinterestedinphilosophyandpolitics speaktheirminds,theyarerarelyportrayedinapositivelight.InShuseikaraFumikoe(FromShuseitoFumiko,1990),MoriEiichinotesthreeothersimilarities betweenFumiko'sandShusei'swriting:temporallayering,theuseofonomatopoeiclanguage,andachangeinmid­careerfromautobiographicalnovels(shishosetsu*) tostandardfictionalnovels(honkakushosetsu*).99Itiscertainlypossible,asMorisuggests,thatFumikowasimitatingthetemporallayeringinShusei'snovelKabi (Mildew,1911)whenwritingsuchearlierworksas"Obihiromade"(AlltheWaytoObihiro,1933),"TheOyster,''and"Kareha"(DriedLeaves,1936),butthere wereotherestablishedwriterswhousedthesamemethod,suchasNagaiKafu*andUnoKoji*.100ItwouldbehardtosingleoutShuseiasthesinglewriterwho influencedFumikotowriteinthismanner. Thesamecouldbesaidoftheuseofonomatopoeiclanguageandthechangefromautobiographicalworkstostandardnovels.ShuseiandFumikowerenottheonly writerstodoeitherofthesethings,soitisimpossibletosaythatthelatterwasdirectlyinfluencedbytheformer.Inheressays,FumikomentionsmanyofShusei's worksbutheradmirationisquitegeneralanddoesnottouchonthestructuralspecificsmentionedabove.Atypicalexample,fromheressay"MasterShusei,"follows: IhavebeenreadingShusei'sworkssincethetimethatImyselfstartedwritingnovels.NowthatIhaveafewyearsundermybelt,Ihavecometoappreciatetheflavorofhis writing.IstillsavorhisFootprintsorthecliquedepictedin"TheStoryofaProstitute."101 Ofhisshortstories,theoneIlikebestis"TheFoldingSatchel,"inwhichhedescribeslosinghiswife;itisbriefandlucid.102ThereisnoargumentationinShusei'swriting.Ialso enjoyedthenovelTheStubbySpiritwrittenaboutthetimehelivedinHakusan.103

Therearenumerouspassages,similartothisone,thatpraiseShusei'sworksbutdonotdescribespecificallywhatitisabouttheworkthatisgood.Thisisnot surprising,givenFumiko'sdislikeofdetailedanalyticalthought,butitdoesnothelpmatters,either,ifonewantstopinpointwhatitwasaboutShuseithatFumikomight havefeltworthemulatinginherownwork.IthinkthatShuseiindeedhadsomeinfluenceonFumiko,butitisperhapsmostevidentintheinspirationheinstilledinher, notinspecificstylisticmannerismspassedfromonewritertotheother.104

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TheEarlyWarYears InOctober1936,FumikosetoutonashorttriptonortheasternChina,whereshemetupwithRokubin,whohadbeeninChinasinceMayofthatyearonasketching trip.TheyreturnedtoJapantogethershortlyafterthat.InNovember1937,RokubinwasconscriptedintothearmyandwasstationedinUtsunomiya,whereheserved asanassistantnursefortwoyears,duringwhichtimeFumikoapparentlyhadoccasionalcontactwithhim.ShewroteaboutthedayRokubin'sdraftnoticecameinher essay"Osho*zengo"(BeforeandAftertheConscription,1937).BothsheandRokubinexpectedthedraftnotice,soitsarrivalwasnosurprise,butRokubin's departureleftFumikoslightlynumbandcriticalofthewar.ShedidnotsharethepridethatRokubin'sfatherexpressedatthethoughtofhissonservinginthearmy.105 Shedidnotwritemuchabouthimduringhisabsence,althoughshedidnotethatshethoughtofhimwhiletalkingwithJapanesesoldiersinChina,andherlanguage indicateswarmfeelingsandaffectionforherhusband.106RokubinremainedinthearmyuntilJuly1939. Bylate1937,JapanesemilitaryactivityinChinahadgreatlyescalatedandthefallofNanjingtoJapanesetroopsinDecember1937promptedFumikototravelto ShanghaiandNanjing,thistimeasareporterforMainichishinbun(TheDailyNews).Otherwritersalsoparticipatedinwartimereportage,asDonaldKeenenotes: NosoonerhadthefightingbrokenoutnearPekingthanvariousmagazinesdispatchedwarcorrespondentstoChina.AsearlyasJuly[1937]Chuokoron*sentthenovelists HayashiFusaoandOzakiShiro*toShanghai,andinSeptemberBungeishunju*sentthedramatistKishidaKunioandthecriticKobayashiHideo.Thesewriters,andmanyothers whofollowedthemtoChina,normallydescribedtheirexperiencesfirstinnewspaperandmagazinearticles,laterinfull­lengthbooks.... Mostofthecorrespondents,whethersentbythegovernmentorbysomemagazine,spentnomorethanamonthortwoinChina,justlongenoughtobecomeaccustomedtothe sightofChinesecorpseslitteringthewayside.Thereportingofthescenesofwarwasalmostalwaysonapopularlevel,andtheinteresting,ifill­informedcommentsundoubtedly influencedthewayJapaneseathomethoughtofthewar.107

Fumikowasoneofthesecorrespondents;sheaccompaniedJapanesetroopsonthefrontforonemonthandwasthefirstJapanesewomaninthecityofNanjingafter itsfall. TheJapanesegovernmentbegantorealizethatpopularwriterscouldhelptheircausebyglorifyingeventsatthefrontforthosecitizenssupportingthewareffortat home.Keenerecords:

Page38 InAugust1938,theInformationSectionoftheCabinet(NaikakuJohobu*)hadheldameetingwithvariousliterarymentodiscusstheparticipationofwritersintheprojected attackonHankow.108AllexceptYokomitsuRiichi,whoaskedtobesenttoPeking,expressedtheireagernesstoservewiththetroops.Anorganization,knownasthePenUnit (Penbutai),wasformed,butsomanywriterswishedtojointhatnotallcouldbeaccommodated.109

FumikowasoneofthewriterswhowasacceptedintothePenbutai,anditwasasaPenbutaireporterthatshewenttoShanghaiinNovember1938.Inanevent thatalmosteverybiographerhasrecorded,Fumikowasincensedthatherrival,YoshiyaNobuko,hadbeenchosenbyTheDailyNewstocoverthefallofHankouin November1938.SherespondedbyabandoningthePenbutaigroupandboardinganAsahiNewstruckheadedforthefront.ShewasthefirstJapanesewomanin Hankouafteritsfall,asshehadbeeninNanjingthepreviousyear.AsahiNewspublishedheraccountofthetripinDecember1938,entitledSensen(Battlefront), whichsingsthepraisesoftheJapanesearmy.Asecondaccount,Hokuganbutai(TheNorthBankUnit)waspublishedbyChuokoron*thenextmonth.Bothworks expressthesameemotions;indeed,thetwocontainmanysimilarpassages,indicatingthatFumikowasstretchinghermanuscripttomeetdemandsfromtwodifferent publishers.Fumikopaidapriceforherambitiousness;shefellvictimtothemalariaepidemicthatranthroughtheJapanesetroops,althoughitseemshercasewasa relativelymildone.110 TheWarYears FromthetimeshehadarrivedinTokyoin1922untillate1939Fumikohadchangedresidencesatleastadozentimes,nottomentiontheamountofmovingthatshe didasachild.Thisperipateticlifestylewassecondnaturetoher,butaturnofeventsin1940changedhersituation.AtthetimeshewaslivinginShimo­ochiai,and whenshefoundherselfforcedtomoveshedecidedtobuyahouseinsteadofrentone.Shewrotelaterofherdecision: IneverimaginedthatinmylifeIwouldbuildahousebutthenIabsolutelyhadtomoveoutoftherentedhouseI'dbeenusedtoforeightyearssoItookthetimetowalkaround lookingforahousetorent.AtfirstIthoughtI'dliketoliveinthedowntownareaofYanakabutaftergettingtoknowtheplaceIcouldn'tfindahouseIliked.Thinkingagain,I foundithardtoleavethisShimo­ochiaithatIhadbecomesousedtoandIbegantothinkthatitwouldbenicetogetaplotoflandinthisareaandbuildalittlehouse.111

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Inreality,thebuildingprojectonwhichFumikoembarkedwasfarfrom"little."Sheputanenormousamountoftimeandeffortintotheconstructionofthehousewhere shewouldlivetherestofherlife.Ifshewasgoingtobuildahouse,shewasgoingtobuilditright: Findingthemoneytobuildthehousewasdifficultsoayearwentbybeforewecouldstartconstruction.InthattimeIfoundnearly200referencebooksonhousebuildingand gainedaroughideaabouttimber,tiles,andcarpentry. Iwantedtochooseafirst­classcarpenter. FirstIdrewupaplanofmyhouseandshowedanelevationoftheplottothebuilderYamaguchiBunsho*,whoworkedonandimprovedtheplanforoverayear.Iwasconvinced thatitwasimportantformyhousetoletthefourwindspassthroughit.Ialsowantedtosavemoneyonthespareroomsandspendextraonthetearoom,bathroom,watercloset andkitchen. Evenso,wedidn'thavethemoneysavedupforbuildingthehousesoitwasratherlikecrossingadangerousbridgebutifitwastobemyhomeforlifethegreatestthingwasto makeitasweetandbeautifulone.Well,theknowledgegainedfrommyreferencebooksmademewanttofindagoodcarpentersoIspentmonthsstudyingtheworkofonewho wasintroducedtome.112

TheplotoflandwaspurchasedinDecember1939.Thehousewasasplendidaffairwithalargegarden,apondwhereFumikoraisedgoldfish,andaseparate storehouse.Thehouseitselfwasdividedintotwowings,withroomsforRokubin'sstudio,Fumiko'sstudy,Fumiko'slibrary,Kiku'sroom,aguestparlor,andthree othergeneralpurposerooms.ThishousewasaboutasdistancedfromFumiko'shardscrabbleDiaryofaVagabonddaysaspossible;byanydefinition,itwasa wealthyfamily'sestate.113 FromOctober1942throughMayofthefollowingyear,FumikotraveledtoFrenchIndochina,Singapore,Java,Borneo,andSumatraasamemberoftheJapanese NewsCorps(Hodohan*),alargegroupofwriterssenttotheareain1941and1942"tocreatefriendshipandunderstandingbetweenthelocalpeopleandthe Japanese"aspartoftheJapanesegovernment'sefforttopromotetheideaoftheGreaterEastAsianCo­ProsperitySphere.114Likeotherwritersinthecorps, Fumikospentmostofhertimegettingtoknowthenativesofthearea.Theworksthatresulted,including"Sekido*noshita"(BelowtheEquator,1943)and "Sumatora—Seifu*noshima''(Sumatra—IslandoftheWesternWind,1943),arevoidofthepoliticalagendaseeninBattlefrontandTheNorthBankUnit;indeed, theyalmostnevermentionthewar.115Fumiko'sexperiencesinFrenchIndochinaalsobecameimportantmaterialforherlaternovelDriftingClouds,aboutayoung Japanesetypist

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stationedinDalatduringthewar.Asfatewouldhaveit,thistriptoSoutheastAsiawasthelasttripthatFumikowouldmakeoverseas. Theyear1943wasthelastduringthewarinwhichFumikopublished.Bythattime,warprivationsandgovernmentcensorshipmadepublishingextremelydifficult.The Japanesegovernmentplacedstrictcontrolsonnewspapers,magazines,andpublishersofbooks,andalthoughFumikowasaverypopularwriter,thatdidnotprevent herfrombeingaffectedbywar;DiaryofaVagabond,"Nakimushikozo"(Crybaby,1934),and"Joyuki"(DiaryofanActress,1940)wereallbannedin1941.116 ThenexttwoyearsfoundFumikoandherfamilyevacuatedfromTokyotothecountrysidewheretheyrodeouttheremainderofthewar.Beforeshewasevacuated, though,Fumikodidonethingoflastingsignificance:sheadoptedason.AccordingtoalettersentfromRokubintoInoueTakaharu,Fumikohadbeenthinkingabout adoptingachildforawhile,andthoughtshepreferredadaughteroverason.117ShehadspokentoRokubinaboutit,butdidnottellhimwhen,ifever,sheplanned onactuallyadopting.Then,whileRokubinwasoutoftownonatriptoShinshu,Fumikoreceivedwordthattherewasababyboyavailableforadoption.Shewent withafriend,identifiedonlyasHanzawa,tothehospitaltogetthebaby,butstayedinthecarforfearthatshewouldberecognizedbythehospitalstaff.Hanzawa handledthedetailsandreturnedtothecarwiththebabywhomFumikonamedTai.118 WhenFumikowiredRokubintotellhimthatshehadadoptedababy,hewassurprisedtosaytheleast.HereturnedhomeimmediatelytoseeFumikoandTaiand apparentlywashappywiththeadoption.AfterFumiko'sdeath,somemanuscriptsofherswerediscoveredthattoldofTaiactuallybeingherownbiologicalson.This sentawaveofdoubtthroughRokubin'smindthatwasnotquelleduntil1961,whenheheardanaccountoftheadoptionfromHanzawathatmatchedeverydetailof whathehadheardfromFumikoherself.Thisconvincedhimthatthemanuscriptswerenomorethanfictionalpieces,althoughheremainedmiffedastowhyFumiko wrotetheminthefirstplace.119 ThisepisodeinFumiko'sliferevealstwothingsaboutherpersonality:first,thatshewaswonttodorashthings,suchasadoptasonwhileherhusbandwasoutof town.Second,thatshefreelyfictionalizedeventsinherlifewitharealismthatfooledevenherhusband.Thiseventshouldgiveallbiographerspause,assomuch informationisbasedonFumiko'sownaccountsofherlife.CertainlytheearliermentionedfictionalizedeventsinOnePerson'sLifeareanothergoodreasontobe waryofusingFumiko'swritingasfact­basedinformation.120 Inanycase,Fumikowasthrilledwithhernewsonandexpressednodisappointmentinhavingasoninsteadofadaughter.Shetookgreatjoyinbeingamotherand spentaconsiderableamountoftimewithTai

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despiteherbusyschedule.Fumikowrotetwoshortstoriesabouttheprocessofadoptingachild,onebeforesheadoptedTaiandoneafterwards.Theformer, "Fubai"(TheAnemophily,1941),isaboutayoung,singlewoman,Sanae,whohasherheartsetonadoptingachild.Shedoesnotwanttogetmarried,butshedoes wanttobeamother.Sanaeliestotheadoptionagencyandtellsthemthatsheisawidow.TheagencyproceedswiththearrangementsandSanaecannotsleepatnight forthejoyfulanticipationinherheart;sheliesinbedthinkingaboutbuyingmilkandbabyclothes.Ultimately,Sanae'ssinglestatusisexposedandsheisrejectedbythe adoptionagency.Thisleavesherheartbrokenandangrythatshewillnotbegiventhechancetoprovewhatagoodmothershecouldbe. Thesecondstoryaboutadoption,"Nioisumire"(TheSweetViolet,1949)isaboutanagedwoman,Tsuta,whoreflectsonherlifeandherrelationshipwithher adopteddaughter,Noriko.Thetwowomenhavemarkedlydifferentpersonalitiesbutseemtogetalongnonetheless.Tsutahasalessthanconventionallife,havinghad twoloversandnevermarrying,butNoriko'spresenceseemstobringherasenseofstability."TheSweetViolet"shouldalsobenotedfortheflashbacksceneatthe midwife'swhenTsutareceiveshernewdaughter;thetransactionisconductedinacoldandbusinesslikefashion,muchlikethesituationwhenFumiko'sfriend, Hanzawa,rushedintothehospitaltogetTaiwhileFumikowaitedoutside. While"TheAnemophily"expressesthefearfulanticipationFumikomusthavefeltbeforeadoptingTai,"TheSweetViolet"expressesthehopesshehadtogrowcloser tohersonashebecameanadult.Sadly,Fumikoneverhadthechancetoseehersonmaturetoadulthood;shediedwhenhewasonlyeightyearsold.Taihimselfdied aprematuredeathin1959whenhefellfromatrainwhileonhiswayhomefromapleasureouting.121 Fumikoandherfamilyspentmostoftheirtimein1944–45inthecountrysideinShinshu.Fumikokeptherselfbusywritingchildren'sstoriesforthechildreninthe villagewheretheywerestaying.Writingchildren'sstorieswasanongoingsideinterestofhers;shehadpublishedsomestoriesin1936andthoseshewrotewhile evacuatedinthecountrysidewerelaterpublishedin1946and1947.122In1950,shepublishedacollectionofHansChristianAndersen'sstoriesthatshehad rewritten.123 TheFinalYears TheendofthewarbroughttheHayashifamilybacktoTokyo.TheymovedbackintothebighouseinShimo­ochiaiinNovember1945.

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Fromthatpointon,FumikospentmostofhertimeeitherinShimo­ochiaiorintheresorttownofAtami.OnoccasionshewouldtraveltootherlocationsinJapan,but herrealtravelingdayswereover.Herlaterwritingsawadeparturefromtheoptimistictonesotypicalofherbeforeandduringthewar,whichIbelievewasduetoa combinationofdisillusionmentaftertheJapanesesurrenderanddissatisfactionwithherstationarylife.Nolongerwasshetherepresentativeoftheworkingclass, illegitimatechildren,andliberatedwomen.Gonewerethedayswhenshewasthechampionoftheunderdogs.Nowshewaswealthy,married,andquiteestablishedin thebundan. Shespentthelastfiveyearsofherlifewritingalmostconstantlyatacruelpace,somethingthatmayhavecontributedtotheheartattackthatkilledherattherelatively youngageofforty­eight.Herphysicianwarnedherinlate1950thatshemustrestmoretoavoidaggravatingherchronicvalvularheartdisease,soshemadeitapoint tospendoneweekamonthconvalescinginAtami,butshealwaystookherworkwithher. ItwasduringtheselastyearsthatshepublishedDriftingClouds,generallyconsideredherbestwork.OthermajorworksshepublishedduringthistimeincludeRose ofSharon,"Bones,""Narcissus,""Downtown,"''Beef,"andAwarehitozuma(PitifulWife,1950).Atthetimeofherdeath,shewasworkingonthreedifferentnovels: Jokazoku(AFamilyofWomen),Sazanami(Waves),andFood,aswellastheshortstories"Raicho"(SnowGrouse,1951)and"Kikuobana"(Chrysanthemum PampasGrass,1951),allofwhichwerepublishedposthumously.124 InMay1951,herheartpalpitationsgrewworseandshebecamegenerallyweaker,eventotheuntrainedeye.OnJune27shewenttotheIwashiyarestaurantinGinza withareporterandphotographerfromthemagazineShufunotomo(Housewife'sFriend)inordertowriteanarticleintheseriesMeibutsutabearuki("OnthePath ofFamousDishes").TheythenwenttoarestaurantinFukagawatoeatsomeeel,afterwhichFumikoreturnedhomeat9:30P.M.Shewenttobedinherstudy sometimeafter11:00P.M.ShortlyafterthatsheexperiencedseverepainandRokubincamefromthenextroomtocomforther.Shereceivedtreatmentfromthree doctorsbuttonoavail;shediedatoneo'clockthenextmorningofcardiacarrest.OnJuly1,KawabataYasunari(1899–1972)officiatedatherfuneral,whichwas heldatherhouse. Fumikocertainlyledanunconventionallife,afactofwhichshewasproud.Herlineagewasnotofprimaryconcerntoherandherreputationwassomethingtowhich shegavelittleconsideration,ifanyatall.Shewasconstantlytryingtowrite"solidworks,"butespeciallyinheryoungerdays,shewasrarelysatisfiedwithwhatshe produced.125Shewasnotawriterwithstrongpoliticalorphilosophicalconvictions,no

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matternowmanycriticstriedtolabelherassuch.Shewashappytoliveinaratherhaphazardmanner,takingopportunitieswhentheypresentedthemselvesandnot worryingmuchaboutwhatwouldfollowthem.Fumikooncesaidofherwriting: Iamnotmuchofasticklerwhenitcomestoholdingfasttotheplotofastory.Rather,Iamabitcowardlyaboutplotconstruction.Whenacoherent,trunk­likeideacomestomind, Ienjoymakingbranchesandleavestoadornit.AndIfeelsuccessfulifmajorallusionsspreadoutfromthetext.126

Ibelieveshelivedherlifeinmuchthesameway.Shedidnotplanmuchforthefuturebutratherwascontenttoliveonaday­to­daybasis,takingturnsofeventsas theycame.Asshewasa"bitcowardlyaboutplotconstruction,"sotoowasshecowardlyaboutarrangingherlife;itwasmuchmoreenjoyableforherto"branchout" towardnewopportunitiesastheypresentedthemselvesthantoorganizeherlifeinanysortofstructuredmanner.

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Chapter2 DiaryofaVagabondandtheOptimismoftheEarlierWorks DiaryofaVagabondisthemostpopularworkFumikoeverproduced.Othernovels,suchasDriftingCloudsandFood,andsomeshortstoriessuchas"Late Chrysanthemum"and"TheOyster,"areinvariablymentionedontheshortlistofherworks,butmoreattentionhasbeengiventoDiaryofaVagabondbothbycritics andherreadershipthantoanyotherwork.DiaryofaVagabondhasbeendramatizedinboththetheaterandfilmmanytimes,includingmanyproductionsthatwere stagedyearsafterFumiko'sdeath,afactthatatteststothenovel'slastingappeal.1 TranslationsofselectedsectionsexistinEnglish,Russian,Chinese,Korean,and Esperanto.AninformalsurveyofeducatedJapanesetodayshowsthatDiaryofaVagabondisthefirsttitlethatcomestomindwhenpeopleareaskedaboutHayashi Fumiko.Intheearly1990s,theworkexperiencedaminorrevivalasJapanesesufferingfromthenationaleconomicrecessionidealizedasimplelife—areturnto basics—andsawinDiaryofaVagabondaromanticnotionofpoverty.AlmosteverypieceofliterarycriticismonHayashiFumikomentionsthenovel,andmost dedicateconsiderableattentiontoit.Giventhis,itmayseemredundanttodedicatemuchtimeandenergytoonemoreevaluationofDiaryofaVagabond,butthefact remainsthatsomanyelementsinDiaryofaVagabondareintegraltoFumiko'swritingthatitbehoovesonetostartanexaminationoftheauthor'sworkasawhole throughthisnovel. HayashiFumikowroteDiaryofaVagabondbasedonthediarythatshekeptfromthetimeshemovedtoTokyoin1922until1928.DiaryofaVagabondwas publishedseriallyinthemagazineWomenandtheArtsfromAugust1928untilOctober1930.Duringthatperiodtwentyinstallmentswereprintedinall,although DiaryofaVagabonddidnotappearineverymonthlyissueofWomenandtheArts.Theseinstallmentsboreseparatetitles,butallhadthesubtitleDiaryofa Vagabond.BesidesthesectionsofDiaryofaVagabondpublishedinWomenandtheArts,therewasalsoasectionpublishedintheOctober1929issueofthe magazineKaizo.Theseinstallments,alongwithsomeothersprevi­

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ouslyunpublished,werecompiledintothenovelentitledDiaryofaVagabond,whichKaizopublishedinJuly1930.Shortlyafterthat,inNovember1930,Kaizo publishedZokuHoroki(DiaryofaVagabond,Continued)asasinglevolume(tankobon)intheirseriesCollectionofNewLiterature.In1933KaizopublishedDiary ofaVagabondandDiaryofaVagabond,Continuedtogetherinasinglevolume.2 Fromthistimeon,DiaryofaVagabondwasreprintedmanytimesbothasa singlevolumeandaspartofacollectionofmodernJapaneseliterature.Itisstillinprinttodayinpaperback,publishedbySinchosha. Thesectionorderinthesingle­volumeversionofDiaryofaVagabond(i.e.,theorderinwhichpublishershaveprintedandcontinuetoprint)isnot,however,the chronologicalorderinwhichthesectionswereoriginallyprinted.Thesingle­volumeversionofDiaryofaVagabonddoesnotcontaintheoriginalsectiontitles,norare thesectionsclearlydelineatedbysomesortofpunctuationorbreak.Theonlyindicationofabreakinthetextisthechangeofmonthinthediaryentries;unrelated incidentsappearsidebyside,andtheresultisthatthereadermayoccasionallyfeellostinthenarrative,unsureofhowthenarratorcametobeinherpresentsituation fromanother,seeminglyunrelatedsituation. Therewerealsoconsiderablechangesmadeinthelanguageofthesingle­volumeversionofDiaryofaVagabond.InHayashiFumikonokeisei,MoriEiichicharts thesechangesandgivesexamplesfromthetext.Insum,henotesthatinthesingle­volumeversion(ascomparedtotheserializedversion),thereisanincreaseofthe following:onomatopoeia,vernacularexpressions,grammaticallycompletesentences,wordswritteninkatakana,presenttense(asopposedtopasttense),anduseof thephrase"Ithink"(toomou).Alsointhesinglevolumetherewasadecreaseduseofparticles.Butdothesechangesaltertheeffectonthereader?Thechanges, particularlytheincreaseduseofcompletesentences,maymakethetextreadmorelikeafictionalnarrativeandlesslikeadiary,butthereisalreadysomuchinDiary ofaVagabondthatmakesitunlikeatruediary,thatIdoubtsuchminoreditorialchangeswouldmakemuchofadifference.Ultimately,theideasbeingexpressedin thetextwerenotprofoundlyalteredbyanyoftheseeditorialchanges. Thetitleoftheworkitself,"TheDiaryofaVagabond,"speaksofamajortheme:vagrancy.Thewordhoro(vagrancy,wandering,roaming)hastwomeanings:first,to moveaboutwithoutdefinedpurpose,tonotresideinonelocation;second,todoasonepleasesornotworryaboutmatters.BothmeaningsapplytoFumiko.She spentherentireyouthmovingabout,andshedescribesthoseexperiencesintheearlysectionsofDiaryofaVagabond.Sheemphasizesthefactthatavagrantlife wasasnaturaltoherasastationarylifewastomostothers,andher

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statements"travelwasmyhometown"(tabigafurusatodeatta)and"Iwaspredestinedtobeawanderer"(watashiwasbukumeitekinihoroshadearu)areoften quotedbycriticswhowishtoemphasizetheforlornimagesooftenassociatedwiththeauthor.3 ThedynamicsoftravelandtravelimageryinFumiko'sworkare furtherexploredinthenextchapter,buthereIwouldliketostressthesecondpartofthedefinitionofhoro:"doingasonepleases." ThelifestylethatFumikodescribesinDiaryofaVagabondwascertainlyanunconventionalone.Shewasayoung,singlewomanlivinginTokyo,sometimeswitha lover,sometimesonherown,movingfromjobtojobbutneverfindingsatisfactoryemployment.Yetthewaythatshedescribedherlifedoesnotindicatethatshefelt shewasdoingmuchoutoftheordinary.Shehadsimplywantedtobeallowedtopursueherowngoals.DonaldKeenenotesthat,"Ifonehadtojudgefrom [Fumiko's]publications,onewouldconcludethatherchiefconcernwasliberationfromfinancialworries,brutalmen,andbothersomegossips."4 Fumikodidnotbecomeahermit,butshediddistanceherselffrompeopletoacertainextent,mostlytobefreeofthejudgmentalattitudesthesepeoplehadtowardher lifestyle.Sheenjoyedpeople'scompanybuttreasuredthetimethatshehadalone.Herlowincomeforcedhertoshareaccommodationswithanassortmentofpeople, butsheoftenbecamedissatisfiedwiththelivingarrangementandmovedelsewhereafterashortperiod.Eveninthelateryears,shewasintenselyindividualisticand demandedthefreedomtoactaccordingtoherwill.Doingasshepleased,forFumiko,meantmovingatwillonaregularbasisandsothetwofoldmeaningofhoro describesherquitewell. StructuralAttributesofDiaryofaVagabond Asmentionedabove,DiaryofaVagabondisbasedonthediarythatFumikokeptasayoungwoman.Thefinalformoftheworkhasthestructureofadiary,with entriesseparatedbydates—albeitvague,asonlythemonthisindicated,andnottheday—butatthesametimetherearemanythingsthatmakeDiaryofaVagabond quiteunlikeadiary.Adiary,bydefinition,is"adailyrecordofeventsortransactions,ajournal;specifically,adailyrecordofmattersaffectingthewriterpersonally,or whichcomeunderhispersonalobservation."5 Iwouldaddtothisdefinitionthefactthatadiaryiswrittenbyoneperson,althoughitmaybeabouteventsthatinvolve morethanthatoneperson.Itisalsoinvariablywritteninthefirst­personvoice,andeventsarerecordedastheyareobservedbytheauthor,notanomniscientnarrator. Finally,asadiaryis"arecordofmatters,"thatis,arecordofpastevents,onewould

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expectittobewritteninthepasttense,exceptforhopesandanticipations,whichwouldnaturallybeinthefuturetense. DiaryofaVagabondiswritteninthefirstperson,butFumiko'streatmentofdialogueinthetextoftenmakesthereaderforgetthatoneisreadingadiary;dialogueis directlyrecorded,surroundedbyquotationmarks,inthesamewayitwouldbeinathird­personnarrative.Togiveanexample,thefollowingistheentryforone completeday: Thetwoofusate,feelingrathercrestfallen. "We'vebeengettingalittlelazylately.Youwipedownthestaircase,andI'lldothelaundry..." "No,I'lldoit.Youcanjustleaveithere."WhenIlookedatToki'seyes,puffyfromlackofsleep,Ifoundherunbearablypitiful. "Toki,what'swiththatringonyourfinger?"Onherfrailringfingerglitteredawhitestonesetinplatinum."What'swiththatvioletcoat?"Iasked. Therewasnoreply. "You'retiredofbeingpoor,aren'tyou?" Thethoughtofmeetingupwiththemistressdownstairsmademyskincrawl. "OhMiss!Can'tyoudosomethingaboutToki?"Themistress'swordsstruckpainfully,likecoldwaterpouringonmychest. "Lastnightonthissideoftheneighborhoodtherewasacarhonkingaway.Thisistheheadhouseholdinthistownsoit'sespeciallyobnoxiouswhentherumorsstartflying..." Oh,enoughalready.Iwasbentoverthelaundry,andherwordsstruckmybacklikesomanylittlepellets.6

Itisparticularlyoddthatthewriterrecordsherownspeechinquotationmarks.Recordinganother'sspeechinthismannercanbedonenaturallyinadiary,butthe author'sspeechisnotsoeasilyrecorded.Generallyspeaking,therearetwonormalstylesinwhichspeechcanappearindiaries:thefirstisoneinwhichallspeechis renderedintonarrativeandquotationmarksareeliminated,asinthefollowingexample: A)Johnsaidhedidnotwanttogo,butItoldhimheshouldconsiderit. Thesecondpossibilityisoneinwhichallspeechexceptthenarrator'sisrecordedinquotationmarks: B)Johnsaid,"Idon'twanttogo,"butItoldhimheshouldconsiderit. Bothpossibilitiesarecommonlyusedandshouldbefamiliartoanyreader.However,inthepassageaboveandthroughoutDiaryofa

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Vagabond,Fumikochoseneitherofthesepossibilities.InDiaryofaVagabond,thescenerecordedinAandBabovewouldbewrittenasfollows: C)"Idon'twanttogo." "Oh,Ithinkyoushouldconsidergoing." Suchdialoguemakesthereaderforgetmomentarilythatthetextiswritteninthefirstperson,untilthenarratorvoicesthoughtsoutsidethequotationmarks. Occasionally,FumikouseseitherstyleAorB,buttheoverwhelmingmajorityofscenesinDiaryofaVagabondusestyleC. Besidesthetreatmentofdialogue,thereisanotheraspectofDiaryofaVagabondthatdiffersfromtheexpected:actionsaredescribedwithanattentiontodetail rarelyseenindiaries.Asadiaryisarecordoftheeventsandthoughtsinaperson'slife,unrelatedminutiaearerarelyincluded.Theauthormaynoteherownfeelingsin detail,butrarelydoesoneseeinadiarythesortoflongdescriptivepassagesthatanovelistwouldusetoportrayasetting.ButDiaryofaVagabondcontainsmany passagesinwhichdetails—specificallytheminoractionsofcharacters—aremeticulouslynoted;thefollowingpassage,againthecompleteentryforoneday,illustrates mypoint: Rain.Iplayedwiththeboyallday.Themistress,awomanwithhighcheekbones,iscalledOhisa.Okimiismuchmoregentleandbeautiful,butfateisamysteriousthing.Whydo mendosuchthings?7 "Hmm.Thingsdownintheharborareareallyseembad."Ohisahadbaredhershouldersandwascombingherhairassheappliedoiltoit. "Whatsortofattitudeisthatsupposedtobe?"TheoldwomanscoldedOhisafromthekitchenasshescrubbedthepots.Itwasraining.GloomyAprilrain.Avegetablevendor pulledhiscartpastthehousesliningtherain­drenchedstreets. "Iwonderwhatfoodisinseasonthesedays?"Isaid. IntheeveningOhisaandthemasterwentofftotownintherainonsomebusiness.Theoldwoman,thechildren,OkimiandIgatheredaroundthetablefordinner. "Theyreallyarefine,goingouttogetherinthisshower,"theoldwomansaid,asiftheywerereallyquitefineindeed.8

Sentencessuchas"Ohisahadbaredhershouldersandwascombingherhairassheappliedoiltoit"and"Avegetablevendorpulledhiscartpastthehousesliningthe raindrenchedstreets"donotsitwellinDiaryofaVagabond'sdiaryformat;theirdetailistoocompletetobeasimplerecordofevents.Moreover,thepassageis dedicatedprimarilytothevisualdescriptionofthescene,notdescriptionofnotableeventshap­

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peningwithinthatscene.Consequently,althoughthispassagewouldbeperfectlynormalifitwerepartofafirst­orthird­personfictionalnarrative,inadiaryitis awkwardatbest.Fumikofeltthatoneofherstrongpointsasawriterwasherabilitytocaptureeverydaydetail.Shewroteina1949essay: Thefoundationofmywritingliesinmygivinglifetotriflingdetails.Iaminterestedindetailssuchasthefactthatpeoplebreathe,nomatterwheretheyare.That'swhatkindof writerIam.9

Indeed,thedetailsthatsheincludedinDiaryofaVagabond,althoughtheydidnotfitwellintothediaryformatasdiscussedabove,didhelpmaketheworka success. PerhapsthefactthatshebasedthenovelonherownjournalinspiredFumikotoretainthediurnalformat,andthusthepretenseofwritinga"diary,"butthefinal productbearsonlyaremoteresemblancetowhatthereaderwouldexpectofadiary.OneadvantageFumikogainedbyretainingthisformatistheappealthatsucha texthas;itismuchthesameappealthatshishosetsu*(autobiographicalnovels)have,inthattheauthor'ssupposedtrue­lifeexperiencesincreasereaderinterest.In Fumiko'scase,herlooselifestyle—asinglewomansupportingherselfandassortedlovers—titillatesthereader.ThroughDiaryofaVagabond,Fumikoprovides readerswiththeopportunitytobeavoyeurofanunfamiliarworld,anopportunitythatnaturallyincreasesthereader'scuriosity.MoriEiichicommentsthat: DiaryofaVagabondcouldbeviewedasaworkthatchroniclesaworkingwoman'stravelsthroughtheworldofemployment.Initsvoluminouspagesisdepictedtheitineracyofa caféwaitress.Atthetime,whenworkingwomenhadbecomethesubjectofconversationinsociety,aworklikeDiaryofaVagabondthatrecordedtherealitiesofthosewomen's liveswouldsurelyhavedrawnmanyreaders.[TheheydayofDiaryofaVagabond'spopularity]wasjustatthesametimeastheperiodwhentheprosperityofpopularliterature wasontherise,andtheremusthavebeenmanyreaderswhopickedupcopiesofDiaryofaVagabondoutofrelatedinterestandcuriosity.10

MorigoesontoquoteFurutaniTsunatake,ayoungmanwhowasinliterarycirclesatthetime: Theyoungwomenwithwhomweyoungmencouldmostfreelyassociateatthetimewerethecaféwaitresses.Isoonbecameoneoftheregularsatthecafé.Mycuriositywas stronglypiquedabouttheinnerlives,thatis,theprivatelives,ofthosewomen,andIwantedtohaveapeekinside. Atleastasfarasemploymentwasconcerned,thosecaféwaitresses'liveswerewrittenaboutatlengthinDiaryofaVagabond.Formeatthe

Page51 time,perhapsonecouldsaythatIwasengrossedin[DiaryofaVagabond]moretogetaglimpseofthelivesofthosewaitresses—asighttheyneverrevealedtotheir customers—thantoreadapieceofliterature.11

ThusbothreaderswhowerecuriousaboutthelivesoftheworkingclassandreaderswhowereinterestedintheprivatelivesofyoungwomenweredrawntoDiaryof aVagabond.ItisimpossibletoknowtheexactcompositionofFumiko'sreadership—whatpercentagewerewhichsex,whatage,whateconomicstatus,andsoon— butitseemsthathernarrativewouldhaveappealedtoabroadrangeofpeople.Forthosewhowereoutsidetheprotagonist'sworld,itofferedaglimpseofan unknownexistence.Forthosereaderswhoknewtheprotagonist'sworld,itwasapoignantdescriptionofthefamiliar. Aswithmostshishosetsu*,itisnotsafetoassumethateverythingFumikowroteinDiaryofaVagabondisfaithfultoreality.SomeeventsinDiaryofaVagabond havebeenrecordedelsewhere,andareacceptedastrue,suchashermovetoTokyoandherrelationshipwithNomura.Othersarecontradictorytooutsidesources, suchasthedateofherbirth.Itisplainthat,althoughthetextisbasedonreal­lifeevents,itisasawholeaworkoffiction.Althoughmanyscholarsusetheinformation inDiaryofaVagabondwhenwritingFumiko'sbiography,neverisDiaryofaVagabonditselfcalledan"autobiography"(jijoden);itisinvariablycalleda "novel"(shosetsu*). ItistemptingheretolaunchintoadiscussionofotherdiariesinJapaneseliteraryhistoryandtocomparethemtoDiaryofaVagabond.Certainlyonecouldfind similaritieshereandthere,butthereisnoevidencethatFumikoconsciouslyattemptedtofollowanysortofliterarytraditionwhenshewroteDiaryofaVagabond. HirabayashiTaikorecallsthatthefirsttitleFumikogavetotheworkthatlaterbecameDiaryofaVagabondwasPoeticDiary(Utanikki).MoriEiichiseesthisasa significantfactinthatitsuggestsFumikowaswritingacollectionofnarrativevignettes,muchliketheearlyHeiantext,IseMonogatari(TalesofIse).Furthermore, Moripointsout,thestructureofDiaryofaVagabond—prosecommentaryonaccompanyingpoetry—issimilartothestructureofTalesofIse,inwhichtheprose explainshowthepoemscametobewritten.Finally,thesubjectofmanystoriesinTalesofIseisromanticlove,andFumikowritesquiteabitonthesamesubjectin DiaryofaVagabond.NakamuraMitsuosaysthat onecanunderstandwhatsortofunexpectedconnectionthat[DiaryofaVagabond],writteninsuchanapparentlyflippantmanner,hastoancientJapanesecultureifone considersthepositionthatdiaries(nikki)andpoetrycollections(utamonogatari)occupyinourcountry'spre­moderncanon.12

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Hirabayashi,Mori,andNakamuraallseetheinfluenceofpremodernliteratureonDiaryofaVagabond,butwhileitistruethatDiaryofaVagabondisadiaryof sorts,anditisalsotruethatitcombinesprosewithpoetry,thesecharacteristicsaretoogeneraltospecificallyidentifyDiaryofaVagabondasaworkdirectly influencedbyHeiannikki.Thereismuchthatisdissimilaraboutthetwo:Heiandiaries,suchasTosanikki(TosaDiary)andKageronikki(TheGossamerYears), makeheavyuseoftextualallusionandconventionalpoeticforms;theyfocusonthemelancholy,evanescentnatureoftheworld;theyareaboutthearistocracy.Diary ofaVagabondusesnotextualallusionsanditspoetryisfreeform;itfocusesontheenergyofthenarrator;itisaboutthelowerclasses. IfonewereintentonidentifyingpremoderntextsthatinfluencedDiaryofaVagabond,IwouldsuggestMatsuoBasho's(1644–1694)travelogues,suchasOkuno hosomichi(NarrowRoadtotheDeepNorth,1702)orOinokobumi(EssayfromaTraveler'sBook­Satchel,1687).Basho,likeFumiko,movedfromplaceto placeandwroteabouthistravels.NarrowRoadtotheDeepNorthandEssayfromaTraveler'sBook­Satchelarewrittenasdiariesaboutjourneys,justasDiary ofaVagabondis,andtheycontainbothpoetryandproseinmostentries.13ButwhereBasho'sworksfocusontheuniquenessandcharacterofspecific(usually scenicallyfamous)geographiclocations,DiaryofaVagabondfocusesonprimarilyonearea—Tokyo—andtheemotionalstateofthenarrator.Still,thereismore similaritytoDiaryofaVagabondinBasho'sworksthaninTalesofIse. ThequestionremainswhetherFumikoactuallyreadBasho'sworks;littleproofexiststoshowshedid,exceptthefollowingpassagefromheressay"Literature,Travel, Etc."(1936): IrespectpeoplelikeBasho,whowasfullofcommonsense.Hewasindifferenttomaterialdesires,andhadacharacterthatwaspureandpenetratedbyasplendidemptiness.His lonelinessrevealshisinnerspiritandexpressesthelonelinessthatweJapanesehavewithinourselves.Whenhesetoffonhistriptothenorth,hewasembarrassedbyallthe farewellgiftsthathisneighborsgavehim.Forhim,itwasquitedifficultthatthingshadcometothat.14

ThisshowsthatFumikorespectedBashoasaperson,butitsaysnothingabouthowshefeltabouthiswritingorevenifshereadhisworkatall.Fumiko'sfictional charactersreadWesternliteraturemorethanJapaneseliterature,andinnoneofherworksdothecharactersruminateorcommentonBasho,exceptinoneshort paragraphinthenovelRiverSong.Insum,althoughtherearesomesimilaritiesbetweenDiaryofaVagabondandotherprominentworksintheJapanesepremodern

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canon,IfindnoconclusiveevidencethatFumikowasindeedinfluencedbythoseworks. DiaryofaVagabondhasmuchoftheNewSensationalistSchoolstylementionedinthepreviouschapter,whichmakesitaveryfreneticnarrative.Rarelydoesthe narratorfocusononesubjectforanylongerthanafewshortparagraphs.Attentionjumpsfromonesubjecttothenext,sometimeswithoutalogicalconnection.The diaryformatherehelpstremendously:sectionbreaks(i.e.,newentriesinthediary)helpkeepthetextfromseemingtoodisjointed,asasubjectchangefromonedayto anotherseemsnatural.Also,withindailyentriesthetextisoftenbrokenbyblankspacesbetweenparagraphs,asifthenarratorhadwrittenpartoftheentryinthe morningandpartlaterintheday.FumikosaidthatwhileshewaswritingDiaryofaVagabondshewasstilltryingtounderstand''whatconstitutedanovel,"and perhapstheunconventionalstyleofDiaryofaVagabond—whichpurportstobeadiarybutreadslikeathird­personnarrative—isareflectionofthat.15 IthinkthatDiaryofaVagabondisbestdescribedasacreativeanthology,aconglomerationoflooselyrelatedvignetteswrittenbyayoungwriterwhowaslearning aboutcreativewritingasshewasengagedinit.Liketheportfolioofayoungpainter,DiaryofaVagabondcontainsanassortmentofcreativeeffortsthatdisplaysthe artist'srangeandshowsagradualevolutionofstyle.WhileitwasnotuntilafewyearsafterDiaryofaVagabondthatFumikocouldconstructafull­lengthnovelwith acentralplot,well­developedcharacters,andanadherencetotheme,DiaryofaVagabondwasthemeansbywhichshefirstbegantounderstandthedynamicsof writinganovel. PhilosophicalandLiteraryInfluences InsomeofFumiko'searlyessaysonherownwork,shesaysthatherinspirationtowritewasprovidedbyboththedesiretocommunicateideastoalargeaudience andalsobythepersonaldesiretoputpentopaper.Shedoesnotexplicitlystatewhatideasshewantedtoconvey,onlythatshewantedtogiveherreadersafeelfor whatwasthenherlifestyle: Iwanttousemyownstyletodescribemyownperceptionofreality.Mygoalistoreachmanyreaders.Thereareprobablymanywriterswhowouldfeelsatisfiedifjustoneortwo readersunderstoodwhattheywrite,butIamnotoneofthem.Imusttargetalargeaudience.Eventhosewriterswhocallthemselves"proletarian"writedry,high­brownovelsthat aredifficulttounderstand.Theirmessageprobablygoesrightovertheirreader'shead.Suchwritingisexactlylikean

Page54 advertisement;onereadingismorethanenough.Thoseproletarianwritersjustwanttoconveyafewcommonideastotheirreaders,andIdonotthinkthereisoneheart­felt emotioncontainedintheirwork.Themedialovestheproletarianwriters,butfromthosewriters'opportunisticneedtowritecomesacommercialismandcorruptionthatresultsin workthatfailstodrawreaders.16

ThishelpsexplainwhyFumikowassohesitanttodefineterms,structurearguments,andmakeafirmstatementaboutherpoliticalandphilosophicalbeliefs;forher,the textsthatproletarianwritersproducedweredidacticandunappealing,andinanattemptnottowritewithsuchdryness,sheavoidedanythingthatresembleda structuredargument.Shepreferredalyricalapproach,onethatexpressedemotionswithoutblaminghumanconstructsforcausingthecharacterstofeelsuchemotions. DiaryofaVagabondwasverymuchanattempttodojustthis,butitwascriticizedassomethingverydifferent.Fumiko'sresponsewas: Alongtimeago,acertainfeministcriticcommentedonmyworkinthefollowingway: "BecauseIhavecriticizedHayashiFumiko'sworks(mostnotablyDiaryofaVagabond)aslumpenpieces,therearemanypeoplewhothinkthatIspeakslightinglyofherartistry. Certainly,Hayashi'sworkslackvolition.Despitethefactthatherworksarestuddedthroughoutwithpoemsthatshinelikegemsamidsttheprose,theylackthepowerofreal­life situations.Forthisreasonherworksare,asfarasproletarianliteratureisconcerned,second­rate." Ireadhercriticismwithdeepregret.Shesaysthatmyworklacksvolition,butthatisprobablyduetothefactthatinthecaseofDiaryofaVagabondIwaswritingapiecethat doesnotfollowinthepathofproletarianliterature.IneverputupasignadvertisingDiaryofaVagabondasanyparticulartypeofliterature,orasbelongingtoanycertainartistic school.17

Fumikotriedtodescribewhatshefeltherwritingwas,butshefailedtomakeherselfclear: Theterm"proletarianliterature"inJapanesereallymeans"theliteratureofpoverty."Ifonetalksabouttheliteratureofpoverty,thenmyworkscertainlyfitintothatcategory.The foreignword"proletarian"reeksoftheintelligentsiaandideology.Theliteratureofpoverty!Inallitsmeanings,myworkistheliteratureofpoverty.Thankgoodnessforthe Japaneselanguage!Butthen,theterm''literatureofpoverty"alsohasalumpen­likequality.Thevaguenessoflanguagecausesastrangechasmofmeaningincasessuchas these.18

Whatshemayhavebeentryingtosaywasthatherwritingexpressedtheemotionsthatoneexperienceswhenoneisvagrant—theloneliness,thefrustration,the desires—andwasnotcommentaryonwhyoneis

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vagrantinthefirstplace.Shenevermadethisdistinctionclearinheressaysandherearlyreputationsufferedasaresult. FumikosaidthatshewasinspiredtowriteDiaryofaVagabondaftershereadtheJapanesetranslationoftheNorwegianNobelPrize­winningnovelistKnut Hamsun's(1859–1952)novelSult(Hunger,1890).DonaldKeeneremarksthat"apartfromthepovertyshedescribesthereislittlesimilaritybetweenthetwobooks." 19Morespecifically,thenarratorofHungerspendsmostofhistimeeitherlookingforfoodortryingtosellhismanuscripts;thenarratorofDiaryofaVagabond doesthesamething.Bothnarratorslamenttheirextremepoverty,andbothconstantlysearchforthemeanstoimprovetheirlot.MoriEiichitheorizesthatreading HungermayhaveconvincedFumikothatherownlifecouldbethestuffofsuccessfulfiction,butitwasnotHungeralonethatinspiredhertowriteDiaryofa Vagabond.MorialsopointstoKasaiZenzo's(1887–1928)shortstory"Kootsurete"(WithChildren,1918)andMaksimGorkii's(1868–1936)Nadne(TheLower Depths,1901)asworksthatconvincedFumikothatpovertycouldbeusedassubjectmaterial.UptothetimeshebeganwritingDiaryofaVagabond,shehadbeen strugglingwiththemechanicsofwritinganovelandshehadbeentryingtosellherpoetryandchildren'sfictionwithlittlesuccess,sotherealizationthatherdiarycould bethebasisforanovelmusthavebeenanexcitingoneforher.HerfrustrationswithwritinganovelareexpressedinDiaryofaVagabond: Idon'tknowwhatformmynovelshouldtake.Itisn'tjustsomeone'sferventdaydreams,isit?20

UponvisitingthenovelistUnoKoji*toaskhimabouthowtowritenovels,shefindsthathisadvicedoesnothelphermuch: "Justwritethewayyouspeak,"hetoldme.InmyheartIthoughtabouthowthatjustwouldn'tdoit....MyproblemisthatImustwritethewayIspeak,butwritingsomethinglike "Um,Ium,"willneverdo.21

Inanycase,Fumikoknewthatshedidindeedwanttowriteanovel,andsodespitetheconfusionshefeltabouthowtogoaboutsuchaproject,shesetabout rewritingherdiary.InanafterwordshewroteabouttheprocessofwritingDiaryofaVagabond,sheclaimsthatshehadnotclearlythoughtaboutwritingasustained novel: Atthetime,Ihadn'teventhoughtaboutwhatkindofthingconstitutesanovel.AllIthoughtaboutwaswhatkindofthingIwantedtowrite...Today'syouthhavean understandingof"thenovel,"butIthinkIbecameawriterbynaturalcreation,andnotanylearnedprocess.22

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However,thenumberofpassagesinDiaryofaVagabondabouttheactofwritingandhowitshouldbedonesuggestsFumiko'ssincereconcernoverthemechanics ofbeingagoodwriter.Shemayhavefeltanaturalinclinationtowardwriting,butitwasnotsimply"naturalcreation"thatguidedherliteraryendeavors.Itdoesseem true,however,thatshefollowedno"learnedprocess,"ifbythatshemeansaconsistentsetofrulesthatdelineatetheproperwaytowriteanovel. WhenlookingforbothtraditionalandmoderninfluencesonDiaryofaVagabond,onemustkeepinmindthatFumiko'seducationwaslimitedandthatthereislittle possibilitythatshewaswellenoughreadtointertwineEdoperiodfictionwithothermoderninfluencesinanythingmorethanahaphazardmanner.Whensheasked herself"Whatisanovel?"or"Whatispoetry?"shewasnotaskingwhetherahonkakushosetsu*(fundamentalnovel)wasamorelegitimatepieceofliteraturethan anautobiographicalnovel,oranysuchacademicquestion,atleastnotinsuchconcreteterms.Herconceptofliteraturewasvagueandabstract,andherfailuretofully addressandanswerherownquestionsaboutwhatconstitutedanovelindicatesthat,althoughshesucceededinwritingwell­received,successfulnovels,shewasnever trulyconcernedwithanacademicinvestigationofthenatureof"literature." DiaryofaVagabondwaspublishedinthemidstofaperiodofgreatdebateonthenatureof"pureliterature"(junbungaku)and"massliterature"(taishubungaku). Writersandcriticscouldnotagreeonwhatseparatedthetwo—adebatebetweenAkutagawaRyunosuke(1892–1927)andTanizakiJun'ichiro(1886–1965)inthe 1920sonwhetherartwasforart'ssakeorshouldappealtothereaders'interestfueledfurtherdebateforthenextdecades.23Fumikowasnotinvolvedinthese debates,butthenatureofherfictionprovokesfurtherconsiderationofthematter.DiaryofaVagabondcertainlydidappealtoawideaudience,butitwasalso writtenasanendinitself.Shedidnotanticipateawidecirculationofthework,andwasnotpanderingtoaudienceexpectations.DiaryofaVagabondwasoften miscategorizedasproletarian,anditwasproletarianliteraturethatmanywritersofthebundansawasdisplacing"pureliterature"fromitsprominenceindaily newspapersandotherperiodicals. SuchissuesdefyeffortstoclassifyDiaryofaVagabond,althoughthelackofconcernregardingtheseissuesontheauthor'spartcouldonlyhelppushtheworkinto thecategoryof"popularliterature,"iffornootherreasonthanthatwriterswhowantedtheirworkstobeclassifiedas"pureliterature"wereobligatedtopublicly theorizewhyitshouldbe.Didbeingcategorizedas"popularliterature"lessentheimportofFumiko'swork?Hardly.Itdid,however,changethenatureofcritical commentaryonthem.Mostcriticssummarilydescribeherwrit­

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ingandfewpushfurthertoexaminehercharacterdevelopment,writingstyle,plotstructure,orimagery.Theassumptionisthatsheavoidedcomplexity,andthus delvingintoherworkscarefullywouldyieldlittlefruit. Academicconcernsaside,noworriesaboutwhetherDiaryofaVagabondwasalegitimatepieceofliteraturekeptitfrombeingapopularwork.Itspopularitywas partlyduetothelight,easylanguagethatFumikoused,andtheoptimismthattheprotagonistoftenexpressed.Fumiko'slanguagewasusuallyuncomplicated,which maybeduetoherlimitededucation;oftenthismeantthatshedidnotemploythevocabularynecessarytodescribeemotionsexactly,andhadtofallbackoncommon termsthatdidnotconveyideaswithmuchprecision.Shedidavoidusingthesameexpressionrepeatedly,however,andthevarietyofvocabularyinherworksmakes upforitssimplicity. Asayoungwoman,Fumikohadnoagendaforwritingotherthanfulfillingherownspiritualneedtoputpentopaper.ButifFumikowasunclearonhermotivesto write,hercriticswerenot;DiaryofaVagabondwaspublishedduringthepeakoftheproletarianliteraturemovementandbecausethesubjectmatterwasthelifeof someoneinthelowerclass,manycriticssawDiaryofaVagabondasanotherpieceofleftistliteraturethatdescribedtheplightoftheproletariat.Asaresult,Fumiko spentquiteafewyearsdenyinganyconnectiontoproletarianwriting,mostlytodeafears.Aslateas1949,shestillsawfittomentionthisissueinanafterwordfor DiaryofaVagabond: Iamnotcapableofbeing"leftwing"or"rightwing."AlthoughIwasamemberofthepoorproletariat,Ididnottakepartintheproletarianmovement.Iwalkedmyownpath.Ihave noconnectionwhatsoevertosuchpoliticalgroups.24

Ignoringherprotestsandangryessaysthatopposedthecategorizationofherworkas"proletarianliterature,"criticsusuallyfocusedonherlifestyle—asseparatefrom herwords—andconcludedthatawriterofthetimeswholivedinabjectpovertywasnecessarilypartofthe"proletarian"movement.Giventheassumptionofan authorialproletarianpoliticalagenda,itwaseasyforcriticstodismissherworksas"second­rate,"allthewhilemissingFumiko'strueinspiration.25 ThereareafewstandardtermsusedbycriticswhentheydiscussFumiko'sliterature:runpenfromtheGermanlumpen(ragortatteredcloth),whichinJapanese means"tramp"or"hobo,"butisalsousedasanadjectivetomodifybungaku(literature),meaning"literatureofthepoor";puroretaria(proletarian),whichalsorefers tothelowerclass,butalsosuggestsadistinctpoliticization;26nihirisuto(nihilist)—perhapsthemostproblematicterm—whichrefersmoretoindividualism(seemy dis­

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cussionbelow)thantotheWesternconceptofnihilism;27andanaakisuto(anarchist),whichisoftencloselytiedwithnihilist,althoughFumikoidentifiedwiththe lattermorethanwiththeformer.Fumikohadproblemswiththefirsttwoclassificationsandpreferredtocallherselfanihilist,ifanything.However,sheusestheterm "nihilist"solooselyastopreventanyonefromclearlydefiningwhatshemeansbyit. LumpenliteraturewasaproductoftheglobaleconomichardshipsthatfollowedWorldWarI.Therewerealargenumberofunemployed,migrantworkersinJapan, andlumpenliteraturerecordedtheirplight.AlthoughDiaryofaVagabondisunquestioninglyaboutayoungwomanwhomovesfromlow­leveljobtolow­leveljob afterWorldWarI,ItagakiNaokonoteshowDiaryofaVagabonddiffersfromotherpiecesoflumpenliterature: DiaryofaVagabonddoesnotfollowtheusualpathofspiritlesslumpenliterature,whichgetsstuckinandburiedbythemud.Itispenetratedbytheaspirationsbornfrom dissatisfactionwithone'spresentcircumstances.28

TheaspirationsItagakispeaksofherearethemanifestationsofFumiko'soptimism,andtheyprovidewhatItagakicalls"asenseofhealthtoherlumpenliterature."29 Thesickmanof"spiritlesslumpenliterature,"wallowinginself­pityanddespair,offerednopromiseofimprovement,butthenarratorofDiaryofaVagabonddoes showherselfcapableofrecuperationsimplybecauseshebelievesthatitcanbedone. Inheressay,"MyHorizon,"(1931)Fumikodoesnotdefinelumpenliterature,butshedoesattempttodifferentiatebetweenitandwhatshecalls"theliteratureof poverty"(binbonobungaku).Shesaysherworkisdefinitely"theliteratureofpoverty"becausethecharactersarepoor,andshedeniesthatherwritingislumpen literature.Ultimately,however,shedoesnotpinpointthedifferencebetweenthetwoandleavesthequestionunanswered,blaminga"strangechasm"(okashiigyappu) inlanguageforherinabilitytodoso.Sheequatesaffiliationwithanyliteraryschool—especiallyproletarianliterature—withprostitutionoftheintellect;shesaysthatif oneismadetotowthepoliticallineofagivenmovement,thenonemustcompromiseone'sindividualideas,andbeingastrongindividualist(whatshecallednihilist— seebelow),sherefusedtoconcedeherjudgmenttoothersonanypoint.30 Fumiko'sequationofnihilismwithindividualismisadeparturefromtheWesternconceptofnihilism.Forinstance,Nietzschewrites: Anihilistisamanwhojudgesoftheworldasitisthatitoughtnottobe,andoftheworldasitoughttobethatitdoesnotexist.According

Page59 tothisview,ourexistence(action,suffering,willing,feeling)hasnomeaning:thepathosof"invain"isthenihilists'pathos—atthesametime,aspathos,aninconsistencyonthe partofthenihilists.31

TheWesternnotionofnihilismtookonadifferentcharacterwhenitenteredJapan;theretheconceptoffutility(tsumaranasa)wasthemainfocusofliterarynihilists, notnonexistence.32Fumiko'sdefinitionofnihilismwasafurtherdeparturefromfutility;whenshereferstonihilism,sheclearlytakesittomeanasortofindividualism, orrebellionagainstsocialnormsandtrends.Thelogicalprogressionfromtheconceptoffutilitytoindividualism,asseeninliterature,isexplainedbyTakeuchiSeiichi: Ifoneexaminesthelanguagethatexpresses[MasamuneHakucho's]protagonists'poseofacting"invain"—desolation,monotony,satiation,weariness,uselessness,depression, apathy,dryindifference,mediocrity,repetition,triteness,mechanicality,putrification,etc.—itgoeswithoutsayingthatitisallthelanguageofself­regression,refraction,and negativity.Thus,regardingtheconditionsthatcausedthisstate,Hakuchocanonlyweaklydeclare,"Nonsense!Thishasbecomeoldandfamiliarformillionsofpeople.I'mtiredof lookingatit."33

Inotherwords,Hakuchorejectedwhatsocietyhadbecomebecauseitwasdullandmonotonous;theperceptionsoftheindividual,asopposedtothoseofsociety, weremostimportant.Ifwekeepthisinmind,Fumiko'sstatementbelowbeginstomakesense;hernihilismwasnotastatementofnonexistence,butratherarejection ofcommonideasinpreferenceforherown,individualideas.Shesays: ImustconfessthatIamaproponentofnihilism.ThusIdonotfollowthelatesttrendlikeeverybodyelse,nordoIsuddenlychangemymindaboutthings.34

ButevenacursoryreadingofFumiko'sworksrevealsthatshewasnotreallyanihilistbyanyacceptabledefinition.Furtherexaminationoftheword'nihilist'inher fictionshowsnodiscernableconsistentusage,asthefollowingfourpassagesdemonstrate(transliterationsforkeyphrasesareprovidedinthenotes): ChiyospokefranklyaboutsleepingintoiletsandabandonedhousessinceshecametoTokyo.Whenshesaid,"Ihavenoplacetogotoday,"Nakayamareplied,"Youarequitea nihilist."35Hethoughtamomentandwroteheraletterofintroduction.("FlowersonaVine,"1935)36 "ThereisaguyIknowwhowenttoLondon..."Tsunekosaid,blowingoutthematchflame. "IshecomingbackfromLondon?" "No,hejustwentthererecently..."

Page60 "Oh?Ishesomebodyyouareattractedto?" "That'sright..." "Oh,Isee.Andareyoueventuallygoingtomarryhim?" "No,I'mnotgoingtomarryhim.Iprobablywon'tseehimforthreeorfouryears...andIdon'tknowwhatwillbecomeofhim,norwhatwillbecomeofme,doI?" "Yes,well,youcan'tmakepromisesaboutthefuture,butevensoyoudon'thavetothinksonihilisticallyaboutit,doyou?"("LightnessandDarkness,"1936)37 Atthetime[May1938]IwasinterestedinConfucius,ZhuXi,Tangpoetry,andTaoYuan­ming'spoetry.Ihaveonlysuperficialknowledgeofsuchthingsanddon'treally understandthem,butasitiswritteninZhouMao­shu'sTong­shu,"theNon­ultimateandalsotheGreatUltimate!TheGreatUltimatethroughmovementgeneratesyang.Whenits activityreachesitslimit,itbecomestranquil.ThroughtranquilitytheGreatUltimategeneratesyin.Whentranquilityreachesitslimit,activitybeginsagain.Somovementand tranquilityalternateandbecometherootofeachother,givingrisetothedistinctionofyinandyang,andthetwomodesarethusestablished.Bythetransformationofyangand itsunionwithyin,theFiveAgentsofWater,Fire,Wood,Metal,andEartharise.Whenthesefivematerialforcesaredistributedinharmoniousorder,thefourseasonsruntheir course."38IhavebecomeextraordinarilyfondofZhuXi'spredecessorZhouMao­shu'sexplanationofhiscommentsontheaspectsofliandqi.Chineseliteratureistotally nihilistic.Itcanbeescapistliterature,butinmypresentstateofmindIcannotbutfeelencouragementwhenIreadthiskindofthing.(OnePerson'sLife,1939)39 "SometimesIfeellikethereisnothingformetodo.Ifeelnoincentive,andtherearetimeswhenmyyouthyieldstolifeinthecountrysidewithoutanyobjectives.Whenthat happens,Itakethechildrenforawalkinthemountains...Anyway,maybeIamanihilistfromtherootup,"saidNakagawa.40 "Hmm,but,Idon'tlikenihilists.41Youhavesuchagreattalent,andyouarekillingit.Isn'titagreatwaste?Don'tyouhaveanydesiresatall?"askedRikue.(TenYears,1940)42

CertainlyitispossibletodescribewhatFumikoseemstomeanby'nihilist'ineachindividualpassage,butthemeaningisnotconsistentfromoneexampletothenext. Chiyo'snihilismisherwillingnesstoliveinawaythatsocietycondemns.Tsuneko'snihilismisherdecisiontonotmarryimmediatelywhentheopportunityarises. Nakagawa'snihilismishisinabilitytopursuegoalsofanykindandhisflightfromresponsibility.AndthenihilismofChineseliteratureispresumablysomethingakinto theDaoistphilosophyofinaction,butFumikoissovagueastoleavethereaderpuzzled.Thetextshequotesisacomplexscholarlywork

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whichpurportsto"laythepatternofmeta­physics[sic]andethicsforlaterNeo­Confucianism";howthatcouldbe'nihilistic'andhowthatnihilismwouldberelatedto the'nihilism'oftheotherpiecesquotedaboveisamystery.43YetFumikousedthisandothertermsliberally.Inheressay"Watashinooboegaki"(MyMemoranda, 1930),shemakessimilarlooseusageoftheterm'romantic': Iwenttothezoorecently.Iwentintotheaquariumandgazedatthevariousgoldfishandcarp.AtthemonkeycageIbrieflywatchedthelifeofthebaboons.Ithinknatureisquite aromanticthing.Evenwhilethemonkeysfightandhowlindiscriminately,thefishswimwiththeirbeautifultailsfluttering.44

ThesentencesprecedingandfollowingthecentralstatementdonothingtoclearlyexplainwhatFumikomeansbytheterm'romantic.'Boththeterm'nihilist'andthe term'romantic'areforeignloanwordswritteninkatakana,whichmakesthemstandoutfromtherestofthetext.Theyareemphasizedwords,wordsthatcarrywith themtheconnotationsofmultifariousideologies,wordsthatwouldbestbeuseddiscriminately,butFumikousedthemalmostirresponsibly.Suchnonchalantuseof relativelyconspicuousterminologyopenedavenuesforcriticswithspecialagendas,anditisbecauseofthisthatFumikofacedthecriticismsshedidaboutbeinga leftistwriter. AlthoughleftistcriticsreadDiaryofaVagabondasanexposéoftheplightoftheworkingclass,suchareadingdoesnotoffermuchinsightintothepiece.Throughout thetext,thenarratorfocusesonpositiveaspectsoflife,celebratingsuchthingsasryoshu(lonelinessonajourney)andkodoku(lonelinessorsolitariness)insteadof lamentingthem.Itwouldhavebeeneasyforhertocomplainaboutlivingconditions,ortowallowinself­pity,butshedoesnot;sheisinspiredbythebeautythat surroundsher,eveninabjectpoverty.Theopeningpassagedescribesherratheroddchildhoodacquaintances—aprostitute,aminer,andasingeramongothers—and thencommentsthatherlifewasmoreinterestingthanacircus.Thesearenotthewordsofonewholivesindespair. Fumikomayhaveprofessedtohaveapersonalphilosophy("nihilism"),butherlifestyleprovesthatshewaspronetocasuallythrowthisself­professedphilosophyto thewindswhenitprovedimpractical.Shewasnotinanywayapoliticalorphilosophicalzealotbutratherapragmatist;whensheneededfood,clothing,orhousing, shetookthemosteasilyobtainedemploymentavailabletoearnthemoneyforthosethingsasquicklyandpainlesslyaspossible.Sherejectedsocietalopinionthat lookeddownonsingleworkingwomen,butshealsoknewthatneithernihilismnoranyotherantiestablishmentarianphilosophywouldprovidethemeansforsurvival;in theendsheknewshehadnochoicebutto

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conformtosociety'sexpectationsatleastenoughtosurvive.ThisisperhapsbestsummedupbyapassageinDiaryofaVagabondinwhichsheissortingthroughher bookstodecidewhichonestosellformoneytobuyfood.ShecomesacrossacollectionofKobayashiIssa's(1763–1827)poemsandthinkstoherself: Issawasacompletenihilist.ButI'mhungrynow.IwonderifIcouldsellthisbookforsomething.45

Inanothersection,asimilarsentimentisexpressedwhenshesays: Oh,neithertheideaof'proletarian'northatof'bourgeois'isinmymind.AllIwantistoeatonewhitericecake.46

AtrulyphilosophicallyconcernedwritermayhaverespondedtoherhungerbygaininginspirationfromIssaorperhapsexpressingthefailureofthebourgeoisietohelp theproletariat,butnotFumiko.Thesedesperatesituationsdidnotcallforideologicalresponses,theycalledforpragmatic,physicalaction.Sheknewthatadherenceto nihilismorMarxismwouldnotputfoodinherstomach,butworkwould. Probablyduetoherassociationwiththeanarchistpoetsinthe1920s,somecriticssaythatFumikowasinfluencedbyanarchism.Ithinkthattheterm'anarchist'may bemoreappropriatethan'nihilist'todescribeFumiko,althoughtheauthorherselfwouldhaveprobablydisagreedwithme.Asdiscussedabove,nihilistswrestlewith theideathatallis"invain,"withoutproposingwhatcouldcountertheproblem.Anarchistsalsorecognizethatsocietalandgovernmentalrestrictionscauseactionstobe "invain,"buttheyproposeasolution:anarchy.'Anarchy'doesnotmeanchaos;rather,itmeansatotallackofgovernmentalauthority,oranabsenceofanycohering principle,asacommonstandardorpurpose.(Whileopponentsofanarchyclaimthatthisnecessitateschaos,anarchistsarguetothecontrary.)47GivenFumiko's dislikeofauthorityandrestrictionsandherexpressedrejectionofthecommonpurposeofleftistwriters,'anarchist'isamorefittinglabelforherthan'nihilist,'but neitherlabelisperfect.HirabayashiTaiko,oneofFumiko'speers,astutelynotedthatnoneofthepoliticalorideologicaldesignationsassignedtoFumikobycritics reallyrepresentedwhatherwritingaddressed: Shebrokedownallexistingrulesandstandards,andwhetheronesaysthatshewaswildanduninhibited,orliberated,orananarchist,inanycaseshetookthosewaysoflifeand wovethemintoherownway.48

FreeWillandDeterminism ItisdifficulttomakemanygeneralstatementsaboutFumiko'swritingbecauseherstyleunderwentaconstantevolutionduringhercareer.Of

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courseonecanrecognizetrends,butitishardtosaythatanyoneofthemisubiquitous.Inthemostbroadsense,Fumiko'scareercanbedividedintotwoparts:early autobiographicalworksandlaternon­autobiographicalworks.Theformertendtobeoptimisticandexpressafaithintheexistenceoffreewill,whilethelattertendto bepessimisticanddeterministic,andcommunicatealossoftheidealismfoundintheearlierpieces.Butwithinthesedivisionsthereareexceptions,andofcoursethe overlysimpleclassificationsof"early"or"late"cannotpossiblyadequatelydescribethehundredsofworksthatFumikoproducedduringherlifetime.Therearemany variationswithineachperiod;Fumikoexperimentedwithstyle,structure,characterdevelopment,andmorethroughoutherlife. WhenIspeakofdeterminism,Ireferto"environmentaldeterminism,"thebeliefthat"theprimarydeterminantsofactionarecausesintheexternalenvironment, primarilythesocialenvironment."49Inotherwords,thebeliefthatmanissubjecttooutsidefactorsthatgreatlyinfluenceifnotcompletelydeterminehisfate.Fumiko didnotholdthistobetrue—atleastinherearlierworks—ashercharactersareusuallyportrayedcontrollingtheirownfatethroughactionsoverwhichtheydohave volitionalcontrol.Asaresult,thecharactersremainoptimisticintheworstofsituationsbecausetheyfeeltheyhavetheabilitytoimprovethings. Fumiko'sbeliefinfreewillcontrastswiththedeterministicattitudeofsomeoftheNaturalistwritersoftheearliertwentiethcentury,suchasShimazakiToson(1872– 1943)orTayamaKatai(1872–1930).Tson'sprotagonistinIe(TheFamily,1911),KoizumiSankichi,andKatai'sprotagonistinInakakyoshi(CountryTeacher, 1909),HayashiSeizo,bothexhibitaninabilitytoactinordertogainagoodintheirlives;repeatedlytheyexpressdesiresandthenextinguishthembystating,"thereis nothingonecando"(shikataganai),indicatingthatthedeterminantsofactionarenotcausedbytheself,butratherbytheexternalenvironment.Theyareslavesto theirenvironments,unabletocontroltheirfutures,relegatedtowatchingtheirfatespassbeforetheireyeswithoutbeingabletoraiseafingerinprotest.Thisfatalistic viewoflifemayhavebeentheresultnotonlyofEuropeanliteraryinfluences,butalsoalong­standingJapaneseliterarytraditioninwhichtheineffectualheroisseenas amostsympatheticcharacter.AsfarbackastheHeianperiod,protagonistssuchasPrinceGenjiinMurasakiShikibu'sTheTaleofGenjisufferinthehandsoffate andaremoreadmirableforit.Thereligiousresignationpromotedduringthemedievalperiod,whichfocusedontheevanescenceoflife,alsoservedtopunctuatethe nobilityofineffectualprotagonists.Inthemodernera,manywriterscontinuedthistradition,perhapsinanefforttoevoketheirpredecessors—in

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essence,aworkthatemphasizedthefatalisticordeterministicwasaconservativeone,andonethatemphasizedanoptimisticoutlookwasaliberalone.Whateverthe incentive,theoverwhelmingtendencyofthewriterswhoarenowpartofthemoderncanonwasonetowarddeterminism. NotsoFumiko,whoseprotagonistsmaybecomediscouragedattimesbutwhoalwayspresson.ThisisnottosaythatFumiko'sstoriesallhavehappyendingsin whichtheprotagonisttriumphsoverdifficultysimplybywillingitso.Onthecontrary,themajorityofherprotagonistsdonotriseabovetheiroriginalsituations;ifthey experienceachangeofsocialstatusorfinancialmeansatall,thechangeisnotverticalbuthorizontal,intoadifferentbutequallypoorsituation.Fumiko'sfaithinman's freewillisexpressedthroughtheactionsofthecharacterswhentheyattempttoimprovetheirlives;herpersistenceincreatingcharacterswhotry,characterswho endeavortoimprove,characterswhobelievetheycanbettertheirsituation,iswhatmakesherfiction,especiallytheearlierworks,mostnotable. Fumikodidnotwritemuchaboutwhyshecreatedheroptimisticcharacters,althoughanearlyarticleentitled''WatashigamoshiKachiushadeattanaraba"(IfIwere Katusha)explainshowshewouldhaveportrayedtheheroineinTolstoy'sResurrectiondifferently,hadshebeentheauthor.50Thecommentsshemakesrevealher tendencytomakecharactersstrong,toportraythemfindingopportunitiesinsteadofdead­ends. FumikosaysthatherKatusha,insteadoffallingintoprostitution,wouldhavepossiblybecomeamerchant,oranassistantofsomesort,bothjobsthatholdmore promisethanprostitution.ShealsosuggeststhepossibilityofKatushamanagingamodestinntosupportherself.Insum,allofFumiko'sproposedchangesinvolve somesortofchangeforthebetterfortheheroine,madepossiblebytheheroine'schoicetoimproveherownlife,notbecausesomeenvironmentalfactorchangeditfor her.FumikofeltthatalthoughTolstoyhadgivenmorethoughtandconsiderationtocreatingKatushathanhehadtoanyotherfemalecharacter,shecouldnotaccept thedark,depressing,fatalisticsituationinwhichheplacedher. IncontrasttoKatusha'sresignedacceptanceofpovertyanddegradation,thenarratorofDiaryofaVagabondmostcommonlyexpressesherfrustrationwithpoverty byvoicingadesiretotryharder.Shealmostneverusesexpressionslike"therewasnothingIcoulddo"(shoganaiorshikataganai);insteadherutterancesmost oftenendinthevolitional(­tai).Whenshedoesuseshoganai,sheusesittodescribetheemotionssheexperiences(e.g.,"therewasnothingIcoulddoabouthow sadIfelt"),notthesituationsinwhichshefindsherself.

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IbelievethatitwasthisparticularaspectofDiaryofaVagabondandotherearlyworksthatendearedFumikotothepublic.DiaryofaVagabondisinvariably spokenaboutintermsofthestruggleoftheheroineagainstherownpoverty,nothersufferingatpoverty'shands.Fumiko'sbookshadheroinesandheroes(as opposedtoantiheroes),characterswhomthereadercouldadmireandfromwhomtheycoulddrawinspiration.Fumiko'swritingwasneversosophisticatedasto clearlycommunicatecomplexmoralsorvalues,butbychoosingtoportrayhercharactersasvolitionalbeingssheimpliedtoherreadersthatfreewillexisted,thatman functionsbyexercisinghisfreewill,andthatfailuretodoso—expressedthroughindecisionandresignation—wasanimmoralact.Whetherherreadersrecognizedthis insomanywordsisquestionable,butitseemsthattheresultantoptimisticqualityofherfictionwasadrawingpointforheraudience. Thelaterworksseeashiftfromabeliefinfreewilltoaresignationgroundedindeterminism.DriftingCloudsandFood,writteninthelastyearsofFumiko'slife,still haveheroineswithvolition,buttheirunderlyingmessagesarelessidealistic:YukikoinDriftingCloudsresignsherselftothehopelessrelationshipshehaswith Tomioka,eventhoughitseemsdoomedfromitsearlystages;MichiyoinFoodenduresapositivelymiserablemarriagefornoapparentreason.Thesuccessofthese worksliesnotinFumiko'strademarkoptimismbutratherinthematuredepictionofthecharactersandthewell­craftedplot.Theseworkswillbediscussedinmore detaillater;hereIusethemmerelyasexamplesofthoseworksthatexpresseddeterministicideas.Thereareafewexceptionstothetrend,thatis,earlyworksthatare deterministic(orfatalistic),suchas"TheOyster"(1935),andlateworksthatarenot,suchasKamome(WildDucks,1946),buttheoveralltendencyisundeniably present. WhatcausedFumikotolosefaithinfreewillandbecomedeterministic?Perhapsherlaterwealthbroughtdisappointments.ItagakiNaokotheorizesthatFumiko's deterioratinghealth—particularlytheheartconditionthatplaguedherinherlastyears—causedhertoturntowarddarkersubjects.FukudaKiyotosuggeststhat perhapsthecausewasherrealizationthatwomenwouldforeverbesubordinatetomen.Whetheritwaswealth,sickness,orsomesortofpersonalrealization, somethingdefinitelycausedachangeinherlaterworks.In1946,shecommentedonhercareerupuntilthattime: DiaryofaVagabondwasmyvirginworkbutIfindrereadingitextremelydifficult.IhavewrittenthatreadingDiaryofaVagabondmakesmefeelasifIamlookingatthevomitof myyouth,butIamthankfulthatmylifeasayoungwomanhasprovedtobesovaluabletomyliteraryspirit.Atthetime,Iwaslivingonthestrengthofself­

Page66 abandonment.SincethedaysofDiaryofaVagabond,Ihavelivedalonglifeasawriter,andIamhappynowthat,Japanhavinglostthewar,Icanburymyselfinmywork earnestly....Iamsickandtiredofwritingseriousnovelsseriously.IwanttoreturnonceagaintotheDiaryofaVagabonddaysofself­abandonment.51

If"self­abandonment"(sutemi)meantalight,positivestyle,thenFumikodidnotsucceedinherattempttoreturntothosedaysandthatwritingstyle. TheoptimismsocharacteristicofFumiko'searlywritingisubiquitousinDiaryofaVagabond,butithasacuriousattribute:itisexpressedrepeatedlywithout substantiated,concretegoals.Asmentioned,thevolitionalsuffix­taiisquitecommonlyused,butwithoutanexplanationofhowtheauthorintendstoaccomplishthat whichshewantstodo.Forexample,althoughsheisconstantlystrugglingtosupportherselfandherlovers,shedoesnotproposehowthingsshouldchangeinorder forhertohaveabetterlife;sheknowsonlythatshewouldlikeabetterlife,andthatshemustfinditherself.Oneday,assheidlyleafsthroughamagazine,shethinks toherself: Ican'tstandthisexistence.IfIdon'tdosomething,I'mjustcausingmyselftorotcompletely.52

Thefollowingday,shecontinueswith: Ifeltlikemyselfforthefirsttime[inalongtime]afterstraighteningupthebigdininghall.I'vereallygottodosomething.ButevenasIthinkthisdayafterday,nightafternight,I simplyreturntomyroom,exhaustedafteranentiredayonmyfeet,andimmediatelyfallintoasleepsodeepastobevoidofdreams.It'slonely.Andtrulypointless.Beingalive­in servantisatoughlife.IkeepthinkingthatoneofthesedaysIwillfindaroomtorentandcommutetowork,butIneverhavethechancetoleavethehouseforaminute.Itseems suchawastetofallasleepatnight—Istareintothedarknessofmyroomandlistentotheinsectschirpinginaditchoutside.53

Thedesiretoactinsomewayisexpressedrepeatedlyinthetext,totheextentthatitsupersedesthegoal.Onoccasion,Fumiko,saysthatcertainexperiencesinspire hertowardthegoalofwriting,butintheseincidents,itisnotthegoalofwritingbutrathertheemotionoflongingtoachievethegoalthatisimportant.Longinginspires her,longingprovidesahearttoherotherwisebleakexistenceandgivesherareasontopersevere.Longingalsogiveswaytoapleasantanticipation,somethingthat brightensFumiko'sdulllife.Again,theimportanceofFumiko'sbeliefinfreewilliscrucialiflongingistoresultinenjoyableanticipation,becauseifshewereresignedto herfate,therewouldbelittlereasontoanticipatechangeandpossibleimprovement.

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Still,therearemanyplacesinDiaryofaVagabondwheretheprotagonistexpressesdoubtaboutherabilitytoaccomplishwhatshewantstodo.Thedoubtisnot duetoabeliefthatsomethingisphysicallyimpossible,however;ratheritisduetoheruncertaintyaboutwhethershehastheskillstoaccomplishhergoals.Thisdoubt ismostoftenexpressedaboutherabilitytobeagoodwriter,asinthefollowingpassages: AmIreallyapoet?Icouldspitoutpoetryasfastasaprintingpress.Butitwouldallbewritinginvain.Notonegoodwordwouldcomeofit.Andthepoemswouldneverfindtheir waytotheprintedpage.Nonetheless,Istillwanttowritelikecrazy.54 Ihavenohopesofwritinganything.Ican'tmasterathing.Writingpoetryistheheightoffolly.Howdid[BeaudelaireandHeine]putfoodonthetable?55

Fumikowasfrustratedbyconstantlyfeelingtheurgetowritebutneverbeingabletocreatesomethingshefeltwasworthy.Thisconstanttensionbetweeneffortand unsatisfactoryresultsisoneofthemostimportantelementsinDiaryofaVagabond,andcertainlythemostprominent.Itisnotalwaysexpressedasawriter's frustration;inthefirsttwopartsitismostoftenexpressedthroughthenarrator'sunsuccessfulattemptstofindwork.Indeed,shedoesfindmanydifferentjobs,butthey arenevertohersatisfaction—eithertheworkingconditionsorthepayispoor—andsosheisforeversearchingforanewjob,muchinthesamewaythat,inthethird part,sheisforevertryingtowriteagoodmanuscript. Herfailuresaresetbacks,butshedoesnotdwellonthem.Pasteventsarealmostneverrememberedwithregret.Thenarrator'schildhood,despiteallthedifficulties experiencedinit,isrememberedfondlyasapositive,cheerytime.Thepeopleshemetwouldnormallybeconsideredaratherragtagcrew,butshedescribesthemasa most"interesting"group: Inourcheaplodginghouse,therewasacrazyoldmanwhomeverybodycalled"Nutty."Hehadbeenaminer,andpeopleinthehousesaidthathegotsofunnybecauseofa dynamiteexplosion.Hewasanicelunatic,onewhogotupearlyeverymorningandsetofftohelpthewomeninthetownpushtheircarts.Heoftenpickedtheliceoutofmyhair forme.Helaterwenttoworkasapillarconstructor.Besideshim,therewasaminstrelwithoneglasseyewhohaddriftedinfromShimane,acoupleofminerswiththeirwives,a racketeerwhosoldmamushiliquor,aprostitutewhohadlostathumb—thegroupwasmoreinterestingthanacircus.56

Othermemoriesarerecalledwithequallypositivefeelings.Negativityisvirtuallyabsent;frustrationandothersimilaremotionsareinvariably

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expressedaboutpresenteventsandfuturepossibilities,butneveraboutpastaccomplishments.Sowhiletheobjectofoptimismoftenremainsvague,thepresenceof theoptimismisundeniable.ThispositiveoutlookonlifeispresentinalmostallofFumiko'searlyworks;itwasnotuntilthelastfewyearsofherlifethatshebeganto lookbackonherlifewithbitterness. EarlyShortStories ThereareafewworksthatfollowedDiaryofaVagabondthatareworthspecificmentionherebecausetheyexhibitthesameoptimismsocharacteristicofFumiko's earlycareer.ThefirstaretwoshortstoriesbasedoneventsinFumiko'schildhood:"TheAccordionandtheFishTown"and"Mimiwanotsuitauma"(TheHorsewith anEarring,1932).Theformerhastraditionallybeengivenmorecriticalattentionthanthelatter,butthelatterisequallywellwritten.Thesestoriesareaboutlifein poverty,buttheyaretoldthroughtheeyesofachildwhomaintainsajoyousoutlookonlifeinthesamemannerasthenarratorofDiaryofaVagabond.In''The AccordionandtheFishTown"thenarrator,Masako,workshardhelpingherparents(whoareitinerantpeddlers)toselltheirwaresintheiradoptedhometownof Onomichi.ThereislittlerestforMasakobetweenworkandschool,butshedoesnotseemtomind.Beinganewarrivalintown,itwasdifficultforhertogain acceptanceatschool,buteveninthedescriptionofthosedifficultiestherearepatchesofoptimism: Wehadyellowmilletriceagain.WheneverIeat,mymindinvariablyrunstothestable.Ididn'teatlunchatschool.AtlunchtimeIwenttothechoirroomandplayedtheorgan.I playedthatorganwell,usingthemelodythatmyfatherplaysonhisaccordion. Myspeechwascrude,soIwasoftenscoldedbymyteacher.Theteacherwasafatwoman,beyondherthirties.Shewasalwayspeekingoutfrombehindthecanopyofherbangs, abunchofhairsthatlooklikeanoldrag. "YoumustusestandardTokyodialect,"shewouldsay. Soeverybodyusedbeautifullanguagelike"uchiwane."57 AndIwouldforgetmyselfsometimesandsay,"washiwane,"whichwouldmakeeverybodylaughatme.Goingtoschool,Igottoseemanybeautifulflowersandlithographs,and thatwasfun,butalltheotherkidswouldnotstopcallingmenames.58

Thecomicaldescriptionofherteachermakesthescoldingseemnotsoserious,andthewondersthatMasakoseesatschoolmakeitafascinatingplaceevenifher classmatesteaseher.

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"TheHorseWithanEarring"expressesasimilaroptimism;abjectpovertytakesonanadorableair,asinthefollowingsceneinwhichagirltriestogetatasteofsushi: Onthetraytherewassomedriedfishsprinkledwithsoysauce.Yashiogottheideathatshe'dliketoeattherolledsushithatshehadseenbeingmadeatarestaurantintown.She cutasmallpieceofnewspaper,spreadoutsomericeontopofit,addedsomedriedfish,andjustlikethesushishehadseen,rolleditup,roundandround.Butsomehow,afterit wasallrolledup,itdidn'thavetheflavorthatYashiohadimaginedrolledsushiwouldhave.59

Thenewspaperisasorrysubstituteforthenori(driedlaver)inwhichsushiisrolled,butthefinalsentenceishumorous,andmakesthesadsceneofahungrychild surprisinglycharming. ThisoptimisticattitudeisfoundnotonlyinFumiko'sdepictionofchildren;"ARecordofHonorablePoverty,"and"Shoku"(TheDistrict,1932)areautobiographical workswrittenaboutFumiko'slifeasanadultandtheycontainthesamecheeriness,althoughitisexpressedbycharactersotherthanthenarrator.''ARecordof HonorablePoverty"isoftencalledthesequeltoDiaryofaVagabondasitiswrittenaboutFumiko'slifein1931rightaftershemarriedRokubin."TheDistrict"is aboutayoungwomanwhoisgettingusedtohernewlymarriedlife.Therearecharacterscommontobothworksandoneofthem,KomatsuYuichi*(modeledon Rokubin),isthemainproviderofoptimisminbothnarratives.Thenarratorisagloomysort,butshecannothelpbutbesweptalongwithit,facedwiththedominating sanguinenessdisplayedbyherhusband.InbothworksYuichiisapainterandthenarratorisahousewife.Thecoupleisnotwelloffandmusteconomizetomakeends meet.Thenarratorisdespondentandmoody,butthesourceofherunhappinessisnotclearlydeveloped;happymarriedlifeisanexperiencetowhichshehasahard timeadaptingaftersomepreviousabusiverelationships.Yuichiispatient—almosttothepointofsaintliness—andthenarratorcannotunderstandattimeshowhecan maintainhisconstantcheeriness.Yuichicallshimselfa"romanticist,"bywhichhemeansthathehasfaithinman'sabilitytodecidehisfate,andheseemsdeterminedon hisparttoimprovehislot.60 Inthefollowingscenefrom"ARecordofHonorablePoverty,"thewifediscoversthattheyhavenoriceinthehouse.Yuichiisoutattheneighbor's,andthenarrator sitsinthehousealone,countingcoinsuntilshefindsenoughmoneytoventureoutontothedarkstreetsinsearchoffoodfordinner.Shebuyssomericeand vegetables,andonherwayhomethinksaboutthemeaningoflife: Forwhatpurposedoesmanlive?Towork?Toeat?EverydayI'mjustgettingby,butithasbecomeevenmoredifficult.

Page70 Igropedmywaythroughthewoodengate.Thehousewaspitchblack,theonlyvisiblethingwasthecharcoalfire,burninglikeasingleeyeball,inthebrazierontheconcrete kitchenfloor. "Wheredidyougo?"Yuichi*said. "I...Well,wedidn'thaveanyrice,soIwentout." "Tobuyrice?Whydidn'tyousaysomethingsooner?Don'tmove.Yuichihadbeenspreadoutonthefloor,andashespokeherolledupthefloormat. "Imeanttosaysomethingearlier...I'llgetrightoncookingit,"Isaid. "OK.Youknow,youshouldn'tstandonceremonywithme.Ifwedon'thaveanymoney,thenjusttellmeso.It'sbesttobeclear....IwasthinkingIwouldheadofftothe expositionatUenotomorrow.Ifigurethereshouldbesomeextraworkwithapaintshop.Ican'texpecttopaintpaintingswithoutworkingatall.Right!Art,painting,theyareman's comfort.I'llpaintasummerpanorama,somethingjustrighttoshowtooldmenandwomenfromthecountryside—thatwouldbeperfect." "Hey,areyouscoldingme?" "Scold?I'mnotscoldingyou.Givemeabreak.Stoptwistingmywords.Itoldyouthatpoorfolksdon'tbeataroundthebush.Isn'titbesttocastoffyourreserveandaskclearly forwhatyouwant?Sneakythoughtswillonlymakeyoudepraved." TearsflowedfrommyeyesasIwashedtherice.Hisordertometonotbesneakyresoundedinmybosom.AllthefalseshowIhadmadeaboutbeingavirtuouswomannowfell pitifullyintoruins. Yuichicriedoutinascathing,thickvoice,asifbyithemeanttodraghimselfupfromhispresentstateofdespair."You'vegottoridyourselfoftheextravagantfeelingthatyou can'tlivewithoutbeinginastateofabandon.Wejustcan'thavethat." "Whatdoyoumean?Isn'tastateofabandonbest?" "Justhowmanydaysofstarvationtraininghaveyouchalkedup?Coulditpossiblybeawholeyear?"61

HereYuichiisbothbrutallyhonestandmerrilyprovocative.Hetrieshisbesttobringhiswifeoutofherdoldrums,andheneverletshimselfbepulledintoher depression.Yuichiin"TheDistrict"refusestoleteventalkofsuicidedisheartenhim.Thenarratorrecalls: WhenIcamehomeafterayearoverseas,theonlygiftIbroughtforYuichiwasthestatement,"I'mgoingtodie." "Goingtodie?"hehadresponded."Well,youmustbeallexcited.DeathissopopularinJapanthesedays—isitthesameabroad?Butnow,takealookaroundtheroom.There's yourdesk,there'smyeasel,bothfineasever,doesn'tthatmakeyoufeelasifyoulefthereonlyyesterday?AndtakealookatKoro.He'sgottenprettybig,butheisn'tmissinga thing.Ididn'tteachhimanytricks,buthe'sacutething,just

Page71 lyingabouttheplace.Thegardenhasbecomequitenice,hasn'tit?It'sashamethere'snothingbutbalsamtrees,butstillit'squitesharp,isn'tit?"62

Yuichi*firstchidesherforherdefeatistattitude,thenlaunchesintothereasonswhylifeisgood.Suchanattitudeisunfamiliartothenarrator—theassumptionthather lifewillbedifficultisdeeplyingrainedinhermind,andsheisslowatlearningaboutthewaysofalovinghusband.In"ARecordofHonorablePoverty"thetwohave thefollowingconversation: "Howwereyoureprimandedbyyourformerlovers?"Yuichiaskedasheremovedsomebonesfromthedriedmackerelinhismouth. "Iwasneverreprimanded." "That'snotpossible.Ithinkyoumusthavehadsomehardtimes." ItookalookatthebathhousestovepipeasIchewedonawholemackerel."Howwereyoureprimanded?"seemedlikesuchacrudewaytoasksomething,butIquelledthefirethat blazedinsidemeandlookedupatYuichi'sface.Yuichilickedthelastbitoffoodfromhischopsticks.Mystomachfeltallsour,andmyeyeswereswollen."Whydoyousaysuch thingsevennow?Areyoutryingtotormentme?Nomatterhowpoorweget,pleasedon'ttormentme,don'thitme.Wewillprobablyneverhaveitbetterthanwehaveitnow,and wewillprobablyseedayswhenwehavelesstoeatthanthis,butpleasedon'tstrikemeontheexcusethatwearepoor.Ifyoudoeverenduphittingme,I...Iwillhavetoleave you,too.IfIgethitagain,mybumrightlegwillsurelybreakandIwon'tbeabletoworkanymore." "Ho...wereyoureprimandedsoterriblybytheothers?" "Yeah,theycalledmeaworthlessbitch." "Nowonderyousaysuchthingsinyoursleep.'Stoporyou'llbreakmybones!'yousay,andyoucryinyourdreams." "But—don'tyouseethatI'mnotcryingbecauseIstilllovethemenIleft?Evenadogwouldwhimperinhissleepifheweretormentedenough,wouldn'the?" "I'mnotblamingyou.I'mjustsayingthatyoumusthavehadsomeprettyhardtimes."63

Thenarratorisdefensive,andlikensherselftoadogthathasbeenbeatentoooften.Heranimalinstinctsaretobedistrustfulandcowerbeforeonewhohasthe potentialtohurtherasshehasbeenhurtinthepast.Yuichiseesthepitifulcreatureinher,andheknowsthathemustgainhertrustifheistohelpherovercomethe painofherpast.WhenstillwithNomura,Fumiko'sresponsewastofocusondesiretotheextentthatherpresentsufferingwaseclipsed.Itwasnotuntilthesuffering endedthatshehadthestrengthtoruminateonthepainitcaused,asseeninthesepassages.Yuichi,andRokubinbyextension,prevents

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thisreflectionfrombecomingoverwhelming,soothingthenarrator—Fumikobyextension—andhelpingherreconcileherpast. DiaryofaVagabondandtheworksthatfolloweditwereproductsofasincereyetacademicallyunsophisticatedmind,aminddrivenbytheenergyandfervorof youth.Thatthatmindlackedaclearfocus,thatitcouldonlydefineitspurposeintermsofwhatitwasnot,didnotretardtheintensedesiretopushforwardtoward unspecifiedgoals.WhatdidFumikowant?Simplyput,shewantedtowant.Herearlyworksarepermeatedbyaquietbutconstantdrive,avoiceurgingthenarrator togo,see,do,desire.LongingiscentraltoDiaryofaVagabond'snarrator'sexistence;herlackofeventhebasicsnecessaryforsurvival—clothes,food,housing— meansthatsheneednotlookfartofindit.Laterinlife,whenFumikohadgainedenoughwealthtosupportherselfinacomfortablestyle,shefoundherselfdrawnto travelpredominantlysothatshecouldexperiencenostalgiaandlongingforhome.Whenshehadallthematerialgoodsshecouldwantandhadexperiencednostalgia tothepointofsaturation,therewaslittleleftforhertodesire,anditwasatthatpointthatherwritingbecamedarkanddepressing,voidofthehopeandlongingso prominentinheryouth.

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Chapter3 LonelinessandTravel ManyliterarycriticsrecognizethestrongthemeoflonelinessinFumiko'sworks,butfewhavenotedtheconnectionbetweentravelandloneliness.FujikawaTetsuji,in ashortarticleoriginallypublishedinBungakusha(TheLiteraryScholar)in1951,quotesanadvertisementforthethennewlypublishededitionofFumiko'scomplete worksthatmentionsbothlonelinessandtravel: TheconsistentthemeinHayashiFumiko'sworks,sinceDiaryofaVagabond,hasbeenalimitlessyearningforhome,whichisenvelopedinvagabondageandlongingsimilarto themelancholyoneexperiencesonajourney.1

Thelastportionofthisquotationmayhavebeenameresecondthought—manycriticsdiscussedtheforlornimagesofvagrancydepictedinDiaryofaVagabond, andthat'vagrancy'wasoftenassociatedwith'travel'—butitisanimportantstatement.ItisthefirststeptowardunderstandingFumiko'swriting,evenifitdoesnotgo farenoughinexaminingtheconceptof'loneliness.' Asdiscussedearlier,DiaryofaVagabondisthestoryofayoungwomanwhodriftsfromonehomeandoccupationtoanother.Fumiko'sotherfamousnovel, DriftingClouds,isaboutayoungJapanesewomanwhotravelstoFrenchIndochinaduringWorldWarII.Therearealsomanyshortstoriesthatinvolvetravel,some butnotallofwhichwillbeaddressedinthischapter.TravelandthelonelinessassociatedthereinwasnotonlyaformativepartofFumiko'slife,butintegraltoher literaryart. TravelLiterature Inthischapter,Iusetheword'travelogue'todescribewhatwouldbecalledkikobuninJapanese.Thewordkiko(alsotranslatedas'travelogue')hasbeeninusefor manycenturies;theetymologicalinformationintheNihonkokugodaijitenquotesMatsuoBasho,andindicatesthattherootsofthetermgoasfarbackasthelate Nara/earlyHeianperiodpoetryanthology,Man'yoshu(CollectionofMyriadLeaves).Thetermkikobunisrelativelynew;theetymologicalinformationonitquotes

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MoriOgai's(1862–1922)Maihime(DancingGirl,1890)andNatsumeSoseki's*(1867–1916)Kusamakura(PillowofGrass,1906).However,theentryfor kikobunsaysthatitis"thesameaskiko,"soitwouldseemthattheonlydifferenceisthatkikobunisanewvariationonkiko.2 Fumikowrotehertraveloguesinthe earlytwentiethcenturysoeithertermcouldapply,althoughitseemsmoreappropriatetousethemoderntermasFumikowasamodernwriter. Thetraditionoftravelwriting,orkikobungaku,hasalonghistoryinJapaneseliterature.Itsoriginslieinsomeofthesameworksmentionedinthepreviousdiscussion onnikki,suchastheManyo'shuandKinoTsurayuki's(ca.872–945)Tosanikki(TosaDiary,ca.935),andalsoinsomeotherworkssuchasIzayoinikki(ADiary ofSixteenNights),anun'straveloguefromtheKamakuraperiod(1185–1333),andMatsuoBasho'sNarrowRoadtotheDeepNorth.3 BythetimeFumikostarted writingtravelogues,thegenreofkikobunhadgainedconsiderablepopularityandmanywriterswereproducingtraveloguesforpublication.4 Theirtravelogueswere bynomeanslimitedtodomesticjourneys;althoughthereweremorewrittenaboutWesternEuropethananyotherareaintheworld,thereweretraveloguesabout mostotherregions,includingChina,SoutheastAsia,SouthAsia,theSovietUnion,theUnitedStates,Australia,Polynesia,Africa,andSouthAmerica.5 Thecollection oftraveloguesinSekaikikobungakuzenshu(CollectionofTraveloguesfromAroundtheWorld)onFrancealoneincludesworksbysuchwritersasMasamune Hakucho,OkamotoKanoko(1889–1939),ShimazakiToson,YokomitsuRiichi,NakamuraMitsuo(1911–1988),OokaShohei(1909–1988),ShigaNaoya(1883– 1971),UnoChiyo(b.1897),KawabataYasunari,Ito*Sei,NagaiKafu*,andYosanoAkiko(1878–1942).6 Withcontemporariessuchasthese,Fumikowas certainlynotapioneerinthefieldofkikobun. Althoughtravelogueswereverypopularintheearlytwentiethcentury,theyaregivenlittleattentionbybothliterarycriticsandeditors.InFumiko'scase,onlyasmall numberofthetraveloguesshewrotewerechosenbytheeditorswhocompiledher"complete"collectedworks.Fumiko'straveloguesmeritmoredetailedexamination becausetravelwasagoverningelementinmuchofherfictionandfurthermorebecausetraveloguesshowhergrowthasawriteranddisplaymuchofher experimentationwithstyleandstructure. TheResultsofaPeripateticLife DespitethefactthatasachildFumikowasrepeatedlyforcedtomakenewfriendsandadjusttonewsurroundings,nowhereinherwritingdid

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sheeverexpressadistasteforherperipateticlifestyle.Sheenjoyedseeingnewplacesandmeetingnewpeople.Indeed,sheknewofnootherlifestyle,andcontinued totravelhabituallyevenasanadult.Until1939,shecouldnotbringherselftospendherearningsonapermanenthome,astraveltookpriorityoversettlingdown.7 Fumikowasforallintentsandpurposesanonlychild,whichmadeforanevenmoreisolatedchildhood;withoutsiblingstoplaywith,theyoungFumikowasoftenleft withnoonebutherselfforcompany.8 Hersolitaryexperiencesinheryouthprovidedherwiththeself­sufficiencyshedisplayedasanadult,helpedherdevelopher imaginationandprovidedherwiththeabilitytoentertainherselfthroughthefictionalizationofevents.9 ThesolitaryFumiko,leftwithonlyoccasionalplaymates, createdstoriesinhermindaboutthepeopleshesawaroundherandwhattheyweredoing.Thisfictionalizationcarriedoverintoherwriting;Fumikofocusedonthe peoplearoundher,sometimestothecompleteexclusionofthelandscape. Another,perhapsmoreimportant,resultofhersolitarychildhoodwasanenhancedappreciationofloneliness.Fumikoenjoyedbeingalone;shesavoredtheearly morninghours,whenotherswereallasleep,anddidherbestworkthen.10Shealsopreferredtotravelbyherself,becausetravelingaloneintensifiedthefeelingof lonelinessandnostalgiathatshesocherished.Theconceptsof'travelweariness'(ryojo)and'travelloneliness'(ryoshu)arementionedofteninherwriting(essays, travelogues,andfictionalike).Adetaileddiscussionfollowsbelow,butfornow,sufficeittosaythatthelonelinessFumikoexperiencedonherjourneyswasoneofthe mostimportantelementsofhertravelexperiencesasawhole.Fumikoalsousesthetermjoshu,whichisperhapsbesttranslated"melancholy,"aswellaskyoshu ("nostalgia"or"homesickness'')andotherterms,butwhilesheusesslightlydifferentlanguageindifferentworks,theconceptbeingexpressedremainsthesame: lonelinessonajourney.11 AsanadultFumikocontinuedtotravel,andexceptforafewyearsduringtheheightofWorldWarII,shetookatripeveryyearofherlife.Herjourneyswereboth domesticandinternational,andincludedsuchdestinationsasmainlandChina,France,England,andwhatwasatthetimeFrenchIndochina.12Sheenjoyedtraveling verymuch,andwrotebothessaysabouttravelandtraveloguesofhertrips.13Inoneofthoseessays,"Literature,Travel,Etc.,"Fumikodescribesindetailwhatitis abouttravelthatsheenjoys,andwhatshefeelsmakesforthemostpleasingjourney.14Inotheressays,shemakesnoteofhowtravelisanintegralpartofherlife.15 Hertraveloguesrangefromlivelyaccountsofencounterswithforeignerstodetailedrecordsofherexpenditureswhileabroad.Themost

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tellingandentertainingtraveloguesarethosewhichshewroteeitherduringajourneyorimmediatelyfollowingit;theseworksaretheleastromanticized,mosthonest accountsofherexperiences.ThetravelogueshelpillustratehowFumikoperceivedeventssurroundingher,andconsequentlyshedlightontravelsequencesinher fiction. TwoEssaysonTravel Therearetwoessaysontravelwhichexpresstheauthor'sthoughtswell:"Bungakutabisonota"(Literature,Travel,Etc.)and"Tabitsurezure"(IdleThoughtson Travel).Bothessayswereoriginallypublishedin1936inavolumeentitledBungakutekidansho(LiteraryFragments).16Intheformer,Fumikodiscussestheactsof writingandtravelingascomplementaryactivities.Inthelatter,sheextolsthefeelingoflonelinesssheexperienceswhiletraveling. Theimportantpointstonotein"Literature,Travel,Etc."arethatlonelinessisvaluabletoFumikoandthatshefindsthelonelinessexperiencedwhiletravelingtobe particularlypleasing.Inthisessay,shesaysthatshe"covetsloneliness"andthat"lonelinessexpressesthewholeofme."17Shedoesnotsaydirectlywhylonelinessis soimportanttoher,butshedoescommentthatlonelinessonajourneyissomethingthatshefindsextremelygratifying: ThenostalgiaandhomesicknessthatIfeelwhenI'minforeignlandsaresoenjoyablethatIcoulddie.It'senoughtomakemespenddaysdaydreamingaboutJapan'sbeautyand longingformyhome.18

Statementssuchasthisshowthatexperiencingtheemotionofloneliness,whiledisagreeabletomostpeople,isagreeable—indeeddesirable—toFumiko. Giventhataneasywaytoevokefeelingsoflonelinessistodistanceoneselffromthefamiliar,itisnotsurprisingthatFumikolovedtotravel.Travelremovedthepeople andlandscapesthatshesaweverydayandreplacedthemwiththenewandunknown.Whereasmanypeoplecravecompanionshiponajourney,toFumikoa companionwouldhavebeenanunwantedpieceoftheworldsheleftbehind.In"Literature,Travel,Etc.,"shesaysthatshepreferredtotravelalone: Journeysarebestaloneorwithonecompanion.Andwhenthetripislong,oneshoulddoitalone.19

Shecommentsthatwhenshedoeschoosetotravelwithacompanion,thatcompanionishermother,whosecompanysheenjoysimmensely.Butthepresenceof another,evensomeonesheloves,cancausedifficulties.Shesaysthatwhenshetravelswithhermother,theyarguequiteabit:

Page77 MymotherandIfightlikecrazywhenwetraveltogether.Shetakeschargeandsuggestswestayatacheaplodginghouse,butI'msuchapleasure­seekerthatIalwayswantto stayinafirst­classinn—neitheroneofusyieldstotheother'sopinion.Thetwoofusquerulouslymuddlealongandthankfullymanagetocompletethejourney.20

Disagreementsaboutitineraryandothersuchtravellogisticsareproblemsshealsoexperienceswhentravelingwithagroup: AsIdon'tmakemanyplansbeforeIsetoutonajourney,Ienjoycarefullyexaminingthemapeachnewday.So,wheneverIfeelliketraveling,Ileisurelysetoutonmyown....Igo whereIwanttogo.Ifindgroupexcursionsimmenselytrying,andIrarelymakeplans.WheneverIdomakeaplan,everyonejustagreeswithmeanyway,sowhatisthepoint?21

Theseminordistractions,suchasmakingitineraries,areadmittedlybothersomeformostpeople,butforFumikotheyhadtheaddeddrawbackofrequiringherto interactcloselywithothers—specifically,peoplefromhome—totheextentthatthenostalgiathatshesocravedwouldremainelusive.Itwouldbeincorrect,however, tocallFumikoamisanthrope;aswillbecomeevidentuponexaminationofhertravelogues,sheenjoyedmeetingnewpeople.Andinbothhertraveloguesandher fiction,animportantpartofajourneyistheexposuretonewcustoms,languages,foods,andsoforth;naturallandscapesplayasecondaryrole. "IdleThoughtsonTravel"isaboutadomestictriptoIzu.Itisaveryshortpiece,butitreiteratessomeoftheideasexpressedin"Literature,Travel,Etc."Mostnotably, Fumikocommentsontheimportanceoftravelingalone: Journeysshouldonlybemadealone.Byoneself,onecanbeasselfishasonepleases.Forme,half­waythroughwithmylife,solitaryjourneyshaveacertainromanceaboutthem. AndwhileIpitymyselfonthosejourneys,thetravelisquitepainfullyenjoyable.22

Thelastsentencesaysthatself­pity(jibunoawaremiru)ispartofwhatmakesajourneypleasant.Thisisanimportantpointtonote;inFumiko'stravelogues (particularlythosewrittenaboutEurope,examinedbelow)sherepeatedlywritesofloneliness,ofyearningtoreturntoJapansobadlythatshecannotbeartheemotion. Thereader'sfirstimpressionisoneofunhappinessanddepression,butthisisnotentirelycorrect.Fumikowasexperiencingunhappinessanddepression,butthose emotionswereonesthatshesavored,andtheprocessofsavoringthemultimatelygavehersatisfaction. TheemotionoflonelinesswaspresentnotonlywhenFumikowas

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traveling,butwhenshewaswriting.Inanotheressay,notrelatedtotravel,shedescribestheemotionshefeltwhilewritinghernovelLightninginthefollowingway: Fromthebeginningofthisromance,Iwasoftenstruckwithakindof"thirst"—thekindonefeelswhenreadingafull­lengthnovel—andIwassweptoffmyfeetcountlesstimesby thisfeelingofloneliness.23

Inthispassage,Fumikodescribesherliteraryinspirationas"loneliness"(sabishiikimochi);itwastheemotionthatfueledherwriting,anditwastheemotionabout whichshewrote. TheEuropeanTravelogues Fumikotraveledabroadoften;sometripswereforpleasureandsomewerefortheostensiblepurposeofwartimereporting.Thesejourneysinformedherwritingin twoways:herexperiencesinforeigncountrieswereoftenwovenintoherfiction,andtheywerealsorecordeddirectlyintheformoftraveloguespublishedinJapanese periodicals.HermostsupportivepublisherswerethemonthlymagazinesKaizo,Chuokoron*,andFujinsekai(Housewife'sWorld).24ItwasKaizothatfinancially supportedherduringhertriptoEuropein1931–32andsentherthefareforherreturntoJapan. Thestyleofthetraveloguesisanythingbutconsistent;some,suchas"ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters,"arecomposedoffragmentedvignettes,some, suchas"Parimadeseiten"(ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis,April,1932)and"Parinokozukaicho"(AnAccountLedgerfromParis,1932)aredetailedaccountsof hertravelexpenses(completewithledgerentries)andothers,suchas''Shiberiyanosanto*ressha"(ThirdClassontheTrans­SiberianRailroad,1932)and"Furansu noinaka"(TheFrenchCountryside,1932)arewritteninanepistolarystyle.IfeelthatthetraveloguesofFumiko'striptoEuropecontain,asagroup,goodexamples ofeachtype,andsoIhavechosentofocusonthatjourney. OnNovember4,1931,attheageoftwenty­eight,FumikosetoutonherjourneytoParisviaKorea,Manchuria,Siberia,andEasternEurope.ShearrivedinParison December23,1931,whereshestayed,exceptforamonthlongsojourninLondon(January23–February25),untilMayofthefollowingyear. Fumikoproducedmanyessaysandtraveloguesaboutherexperiencesonthistripbothduringandafterthefact.Theworksthatmostexpress"travelloneliness"are thosewrittenduringthetrip.Ruminatingonhertravelsinretrospect,Fumikobecamemoremechanicalandjournalisticaboutevents.Intheworkswrittenonlocation, shewas

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moreapttobelyrical,torecordeveryemotion,everyaction,andeveryresponsetoeventsaroundher.Thisisnottosaythattheworkswrittenlaterareofnointerest; rather,forthepurposesofexaminingtheeffectof"travelloneliness"onFumiko'slifeandworks,theworkswrittenonsitearemorerevealing. WhatfollowsisanexaminationofeighttraveloguesaboutthejourneytoParis.25InadditiontoParis,theycovertheTrans­Siberianrailroadjourney,thetripto London,andadayinNaples.Thetraveloguesare,inchronologicalorderofpublication,"ThirdClassontheTrans­SiberianRailroad,""ClearSkiesAlltheWayto Paris,""ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters,""Raten­kunosampo"(AWalkintheLatinQuarter,October1932),"Naporinonichiyobi''(Sundayin Naples,April1936),"Gaikokunoomoide"(MemoriesofAbroad,April,1936),"Pari(no)nikki"(ParisDiary,November1947),and"Furansudayorikara"(From NewsfromFrance,November1948). "ThirdClassontheTrans­SiberianRailroad"and"ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis"arebothshortpiecesaboutthetraintripacrosstheSovietUnion.Theformer coversthefirsthalfofthetripandthelattercoversthesecondhalf.Theyaredividedintosixandfivesectionsrespectively,eachsectioncoveringoneortwomajor topics."ThirdClassontheTrans­SiberianRailroad"hasamoreoptimistictone,inkeepingwiththesurgeofexcitementFumikofeltattheonsetofthisadventure. "ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis"isnotvoidofenthusiasm,butitdoesshowthewearinessthatshefeltafterweeksonthetrain;shenotesthesqualorofthethird­ classcompartmentanditspassengers,andhercommentsaboutcommunismandtheconditionoftheproletariatinSovietRussiashowthatwhateverleftisttendencies mayhaveremainedinhermind(afterdisassociatingherselffromtheanarchistpoetsafewyearsearlier)werequicklysweptawaybytherealitybeforehereyes. Intheensuingmonths,Fumikowrote"ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters"and"AWalkintheLatinQuarter."Thelatteriswrittenindiaryform,muchlike DiaryofaVagabond,andcoverstheperiodJanuary1–24,1932.TheentriesdescribeeverydaylifeinParis,andalsoexpressagrowingdissatisfactionwithFrance. ThefinalentryismadeonthedayshearrivesinLondonforaone­monthstay."ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters"picksupwhere"AWalkintheLatin Quarter"leavesoff,buthasaremarkablydifferentstructure.Itisdividedintoeightsections,eachunrelatedtotheothers.Thesectionscanbestbedescribedas vignettes,althoughthenarrativeevenwithineachindividualsectionisoccasionallyaconglomerationofdisparateimages.Fumikorecordsherthoughtsinastream­of­ consciousnessstyle,andthesequenceofeventsmaynotmakeperfectsensetothereader.ThistraveloguemayshowsomeinfluencefromtheNewSensa­

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tionalistSchool,orfromtheexperienceofseeingCocteau,butinanycasethewritingstylethatFumikousedherewasacleardeparturefromanythingshehadwritten previously. TheotherEuropeantravelogues,"SundayinNaples,""MemoriesofAbroad,""ParisDiary,"and"FromNewsfromFrance''werepublishedafterFumikohad returnedfromhertrip.Allfourshareanoticeablystrongelementofretrospectivethought."SundayinNaples,"ismoreaboutJapanthanitisaboutNaples.Thisshort piecewaxesnostalgicaboutthemusicthatFumikoheardduringhershortvisittoItaly,andlamentsthelackofsuchmusicinJapan."FromNewsfromFrance" discussesthewritingofShimazakiToson(awriterwhomFumikoadmired),andreflectsonToson'sresponsetoFranceincomparisontoFumiko'sownimpressions. 26"FromNewsfromFrance"waswrittenfifteenyearsafterFumiko'sreturntoJapanandisanotablywellorganizedandstructuredpiece,whichstrongly distinguishesitfromthetravelogueswrittenmuchearlierinEurope."MemoriesofAbroad"waspublishedthreeyearsafterFumiko'sreturnandisashortpiecethat summarizesmanyoftheeventsrecordedinothertravelogues.Thispieceisnotasorganizedas"FromNewsfromFrance,"butitdoeshaveasimilarstructure(i.e.,it isonesolidnarrative,notbrokenintosections),anditdoesnotexpresstheintenseemotionsfoundintheearlierpieces.Thesamecanbesaidof"ParisDiary."Given theamountoftimethatpassedbetweenthetripandtheactofwriting,itisnaturalthatthestrongsentimentsandperiodicallyrandominterjectionsofemotiontypicalof theearliertraveloguesshouldbenoticeablyabsentfrom"FromNewsfromFrance"and"ParisDiary."Thespontaneousinspirationthatisquiteprominentin"A LondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters"and"AWalkintheLatinQuarter"giveswaytoamoresomber,retrospectivenarrativevoice.Thatisnottosaythat thesetwoworksaredryanddullreading;ratherthattheytendtorecordeventsinaprosaicmanner,wheretheearlierpiecestendtobepoetic. ThereareafewaspectsofFumiko'stravelwritingthatmakeitdistinctive.Thefirstisherdescriptionoflandscapes:sherarelynotesthenaturallandscapesthatshe seesonherjourneys,andwhenshedoessothedescriptionisbrief.OnthetriptoParis,asonothertripsabroadlaterinherlife,Fumikosawlandscapesthatshehad neverseenbefore.TheexpanseofSiberiamusthavebeenstrikinglydifferentfromanythingshehadeverencountered,andgiventhatshewastravelingonarelatively slowtrain,shemusthavehadplentyoftimetoviewthescenery.Likewise,thelandscapeofEuropewasverydifferentfromJapan.Consequently,thereadermight expectFumikotodescribethesesightswithgreatinterest,butinfactshedoesnot.Fumiko'swritingisalmostentirelyaboutthepeoplethatshemeets,abouttheir behaviorandherinteractionwiththem.Thisinteractionwithpeoplewhocome

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fromdifferentculturesisveryimportanttoher,foritaccentuatesthedistancefromherhomeculture,and,byextension,thelonelinessandnostalgiathatshefeelsasa travelerabroad.ThelonelinessthatFumikoenjoyedwasnotoneofcompleteisolation.Sheenjoyedmeetingnewpeopleandpurposelytraveledthirdclassinorderto meetpeoplewhoshefeltwouldbemoreinterestingthanthoseinfirstorsecondclass.27Thenaturallandscapewasuninterestingifuninhabited;Fumikooncesaid,"A landscapewithoutpeopleinitisboring."28 ThepeoplethatFumikoseesaredescribedwithcrisp,shortsentences.Theiractionsaremoreprominentthantheirphysicalappearancesbuteventhoseactionsare sparinglydescribed.Sheusesfewadjectivesandwhensheusesadverbstheyaremoreoftenthannotonomatopoeic;suchtersenessemphasizestheobjective observationalstanceofthenarratorandconveysanairofreportage.Thisstylerendersthefollowingtext,evenifitisthenarrator'sconjecture,morecredible. CharacteristicofmostofFumiko'stravelwritingareextendedpassagesofconjecture—basedonlyononeortwoobservations—aboutthevarioussituationsaround her.Forexample,althoughFumikocouldnotspeakRussian,shemadeextensivecommentsontheprobablethoughtsofherfellowpassengersonthetraintripacross Siberia.Inthefollowingpassage,shedescribesaRussianwoman'sreactionwhensoldiersboardthetrainatastopandknockoncompartmentdoors: Whenthesoldiersknockedviolentlyonthedoor,theRussianwomanwhowassleepinginfrontofmeshoutedsomethingattheminaveryloudvoice.Isupposeshewassaying somethinglike"Howrude!Thisisawomen'scompartment."ItriedusingsignlanguagetoshowherthatIthoughtitwasfrightening.TheRussianwomanmusthaveunderstood, forshesaid"Da,da"andsmiledatme.29Iatedinnerwiththiswomaninthediningcar.Ireallywantedtothankhersomehow,butIcouldthinkofnowayofdoingso—ontheeve ofherdeparture,IendedupgivingherapaperballoonthatIhadboughtinGinza.Shewasstillplayingwithitthefollowingmorning,happilyexclaiming''Spasibo!"Shebehaved justlikeachild.IhadwonderediftheballoonwouldonlybefitashabbyOrientalsuchasmyself,butitwasquitefittingfortheRussianwoman,too.Shetoldmebysignlanguage thatshewasateacheratagirls'school—ofcourseshewasaWhiteRussian.30 Thelightgreen,white,andpinkcoloredpaperballoondancedaboutinthepure,cleanlandscape.Thewindowshadewaspulleddownlow.WearrivedinHailarataboutten o'clock,andIthoughtabouthowwewouldprobablynevermeetagain.31Iwantedatleasttoexchangeglanceswiththistrulykindpassingstrangerinparting.Assoonasour claspedhandsparted,Ipeeredoutfromthecrackunderthewindowshadeandsawtheretreatingfigureoftheoldwoman,walkingjauntilyalongtheplatform.32

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Thetwowomencommunicatedbyhandgestures,whichcouldonlyhaveresultedinlimitedexchangeatbest.Nonetheless,Fumikoissadtoseehercompaniondepart fromthetrain.Whilethetwobecamefriendsandwereapparentlyquitecompatible,itissafetoassumethatanysortofmeaningfulintellectualexchangewaspurely suppositiononFumiko'spart.Sheusesconjecturallanguagewhenshesays"apparently"and"musthavebeen,"whichemphasizesthefictionalizednatureofthe narrative.33 Fumikorecognizesherowntendencytosurmiseaboutsituationsthatshedoesnottrulyunderstand.Herimpressionsareallformedfromwhatsheperceivesasan observer,notwhatsheconceivesfrominformationthatsheobtainsthroughconversationswiththepeopleuponwhoselivesshecomments.Asaresult,herconclusions abouttheplacesshevisitsareconjectureatbest.In"ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis"sheisdisappointedbythestateinwhichshefindstheproletariatoftheSoviet Union.Shehadexpectedacountryinwhichthepoorfarewell,butshefindsthesamesocialinjusticesinRussiaasinothercountries.Shecommentsthoughtfullyabout thestateofthecountry,butshealsonotesthatherdeductionsmaynotbeaccurate: IhaveaquiteoddimpressionofRussia,butperhapsthatisbecauseIdonotspeakthelanguage.TheRussiathatIknewwhilestillinJapanisquitedifferentfromtheRussiathatI havecometoknow.IsthisthesameRussiathattheJapaneseproletariatsolongsfor?TheJapanesepeasantsyearnfortheplacesIhavebeentoinRussia—butonRussiansoil, too,theproletariatisstilltheproletariat.Nomatterwhatcountry,theprivilegedclassisstilltheprivilegedclass.Therewerealotofsoldiersandintelligentsiatypesinthatthree­ rubledininghall.Buttherewerenosoldiersorintelligentsiaamongthoseasleepontheirfeetoutsideinthehallway.Theywerealmostalllaborers,weren'tthey?34

FumikocomestoconclusionsabouttheeconomicandpoliticalstateoftheSovietUnionbasedonwhatshesees;shecreatesacompletescenariofromoneglimpseof thecountry.InthecaseoftheWhiteRussianwoman,Fumikosuppliesthedetailsnecessarytocreatearoundedfriendshipwithsomeonewithwhomshecannotreally communicateinanymeaningfulway.Thisaspectofhermentalprocessis,Ibelieve,greatlyinfluencedbyherchildhood;avividimaginationcanbeagreatassettoan onlychildwithfewfriends,andFumiko'simaginationlikelyprovidedherwiththecompanythatsheotherwiselacked.Shelearnedatayoungagehowtoentertain herself,andasanadultshestillenjoyedbeingalone,whereshecouldinterpretthingstoherownsatisfaction.Herwriting—acombinationofshort,precisevisual observationsandobserverextrapolation—istheproductofamindthatpreferstoabsorbandintegrateinformationsolitarily.Sherarelywritesofintellectual

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interactionwithothers;instead,sherecordsshortconversationsshehaswiththemandthenproceedstoconstructthemeaningoftheconversationwithinherown mind. Fumiko'spredilectionforintellectualsolitudeispartandparcelofherpenchantforloneliness.Astateoflonelinesswasoneinwhichshecouldgiveherownthoughts freereign,withoutoutsideinterference.Itwasalsothestateinwhichshecouldbesolelyresponsibleforanyconclusionsorachievements.Thiswasparticularly importantbecauseFumikospentherlifeinconstantdoubtofherownaccomplishments.Shewasneverfullysatisfiedwithherwork,andsheoftenexpressedadesire toimproveuponherwriting.Inher1937essay"MyWork"shewrites: Ihavewrittencountlessshortpieces...butthereareonlyatriflingfewwhichImyselflike.AndevenafterreadingthosepiecesthatIlike,Iamnottransportedtoarealmofbliss.. ..IsometimesfeelthatIhavebeenwastingmytimeinfruitlessendeavorsforthepasttenyears,butifIdosaysomyself,Ithinkthatthosetenyearsofpreparatoryworkhave beenpreciselywhatIneededtogainthecourageandexcitementthatIfeelwithinmetoday....SomehowIfeelthatonceIhaveascertainedmygoals,thenIcantakemytimeand writesolidworks....IbecomeveryangrywhenIreceivenegativecriticismaboutanyofmyworks.Nonetheless,Iamwellawareoftheuglinessofmywritingandthusardently attackeachnewproject.Imaybeweak­hearted,butIcanalsoberatherdetermined.35

Andlater,inthesameessay,sheexpressesdissatisfactionwithherownflirtationwithintellectualschools: [G]ivenallthevarious[literary]schoolswithwhichIassociatedmyselffrom[thebeginningofmycareer]tothepresent,IamleftfeelinglikeIneedanenematocleansemyselfofit all.36

ThediscontentexpressedinthisessaywaspresentthroughoutFumiko'slife.Shewasneverquitehappywithherwriting,andshepurposefullydissociatedherselffrom literaryandintellectualschoolsofthoughtbecause,assheoncesaid: IregardtheideaswhichIstruggledtoproduceasmychastity,andIwillnotprostitutethemtoanybody.37

Fumikowasinterestedinreadingotherwriters'worksandlearningaboutthevariousliteraryschools,butshewouldnotstandforanyformalconnectionbetween herselfandthembecauseshefeltthatsuchaconnectionwouldbea"prostitution"ofherideas.Thisintellectualisolationwasalsoamanifestationofherdesiretobe alone.Thesamespiritthatdrovehertoseeklonelinessonajourneydrovehertosecludeher­

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selffromtheliteraryintelligentsiaandtheirtrends.Sheenjoyedthechallengeofsolitaryendeavors,bothintravelandinwriting. AnotheraspecttonoteinFumiko'straveloguesisthejuxtapositionoflonelinessandhappiness.OftensheexclaimsthatshecannotstandbeingawayfromJapan,butin thesentencefollowingthatstatement,sheexpressesajoyoflifeandanexuberancethatstarklycontrastherputativedespair.In"ALondonBoardingHouseandOther Matters,"sheisovercomebydepressionandcontemplatessuicide,onlytoconcludethatsheisaveryhappyperson: Idosowanttolive—thingsweresoexcruciating,Icrawledintothehearth,andthenclosedthegascock;whenIhadtriedtothinkwhyImustkillmyself,Icouldfindnoreason. IfIendedmylifehere,firstwouldcometheviciousrumorsoflostlove.Butpeopledonotdiejustbecauseoflostlove. Actually,Iamsuchahappyperson.Justthinkaboutit.Asawaitressinasuburbancafé,I'veservedupfriedpork,andI'veworkedinacelluloidfactory,andI'vebeenaserverina nightmarketbutcher'sstall.AndI'vecomeallthewaytoaforeigncountryonthewagesfrommymeagerscribblings. Byallmeans,Iamahappyperson.38

Thejuxtapositionofhappyandsadisstriking;afterattemptingself­annihilation,Fumikosuddenlysaysthatsheisa"veryhappyperson."Thereisnoseguetoconnect thetwoopposingemotions,becausetherealizationofhappinessisdirectlyrelatedtotherealizationofsadnessandbyextension,loneliness.Inotherwords,the sufferingprovidesacontrastthatinturnsbringsoutintobrightreliefthegoodaspectsofhomeandeverydaylife. In"ParisDiary"FumikodescribeshowthinkingofthetrialsandtribulationsofhervisittoParisgivesherjoy: [WalkingalonealongtheChamps­Elysées]givesmeavaguefeelinglikethetediumexperiencedontheopenseaduringalongvoyage.But,forme,thisvoyageisanadventure. WhileIthinkabouthowI'dliketoreturntoJapanandgetonwithmywork,ItakepleasureinthefeelingthatcomesfromthepainandjoythatIexperiencebymyselfinthis strangeland.39

ForFumiko,thebadexperiencesarejustasimportant(perhapsevenmoreso)asthegoodexperiences.Thegratificationsheknowsshecouldhaveifsheonly returnedtoJapanultimatelywouldnotsatisfyher;itismoreimportanttoexperiencethepainandnostalgiabroughtonbyremaininginEurope.Sheconsciouslyand willinglychoosestoenduresadnessbecauseitis,forher,anecessarymeanstoachievehappiness. InthepassageabovewhereFumikocontemplatessuicide,shehasa

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suddenchangeofheartbecauseshedecidesthatsheisactuallyahappyperson(kofukumono).Inother,similarscenes,Fumikodeclaresthatshehasastrongwillto live,whichsheusestocounterherfeelingsofdepressionanddespair,asinthefollowingentryfromDecember26in"ParisDiary": Theheightsanddepthsofmaltreatmenthavebefallenme,butnomatterwhathappens,Ishallcontinueonandnotgivein! —Iwascryinginmysleep.Itwassoawful,IfeltlikeIwastossingandturning. WhileIwasmovingin,Iheardthesoundofanaccordioncomingfromthedoorwayofmyroom.WhenIgotoffmybedandopenedthewindow,Isawthatayoungman—Ithink hewasastreetmusician—wasplayinganaccordion.Thereweretwoorthreechildrenstandingbyhisside.Ilistenedtotheaccordionwithafeelingofsadnessinmyheart.The bigbuildinginfrontofmyhousewasanelementaryschool,andbesidetheschoolgatewasabutcherandastonemason'sshop....Lookingatthedull,greysky,Isuddenly wantedtoreturntoJapan.40

Thefirstsentenceintheabovepassage(umiyamanokashakuyowatashinifurikakare,donnakotogaattemowatashiwamakenaideikiteitai)expressesan emotionseenoverandoverinFumiko'sworks;sheusesthewordikitai(thevolitionalinflectionof"tolive,"meaning"Iwanttolive")hereandmanytimesthroughout heressaysandtravelogues,anditisthiswordthatsheusesheretoexpressaloveoflife.Atthesametime,sheisovercomewithmelancholyatthesoundofthe accordion,andpausestolistentoitdespitethefactthatitmakeshersad.Indeed,shepausestolistenpreciselybecauseitmakeshersad.Thatsadness(kanashii kimochi)isdesirable,foritpresentsachallengeandanincentive,whichinturndriveshertopersevereandmakesherhappy. Thesequence—letuscallitthe"loneliness,incentive,motivation"sequence—ispresentinbothFumiko'swritingcareerandinherpersonaltravels.Inherwriting career,shewasconstantlydepressedaboutthequalityofherwritingandthatdepressioninspiredhertotryharder.Inhertravels,sherepeatedlychosetogoon journeysbyherself,whichcausedhertofeellonely.Thatlonelinessenhancedtheaspectsofherhomelifethatshemissedmost,andconsequentlyshefeltdrivento writeaboutthem. ThisbringsustothequestionofwhatexactlyFumikodidmisswhensheexperiencednostalgiaonajourneyabroad.Besidesherfamily(inparticularhermother,with whomshehadaclose,lovingrelationship)andfriends,whomalmostanytravelerwouldmiss,FumikomissedtheJapaneselanguage.41Shewasextremelyfondofthe Japaneselanguage,assheexpressedin"Literature,Travel,Etc.":

Page86 TheJapaneselanguageisespeciallygood.InFrench,simplewordslikenonorouicanbeusedbyanybody.ButinJapan,evensimplewordslikenoandyesareexpressedina myriadofways....Japaneseisalanguageinferiortonone.42

Sheexpressedsimilarsentimentin"MyHorizon."43Inhertraveloguessheoftenmentionslanguagebarriersandthedisadvantagesofnotbeingabletocommunicate. Whileabroad,shefindsherselfreadingJapanesetextsthatshewouldnototherwisehaveread—in"AWalkintheLatinQuarter,"sherecordsreadingTosaDiaryat nightinordertofallasleep,andshesaysshefindsherselfwantingtoreadintheirentiretybooksthatshedidnotreadinJapan.44WhenaJapanesefriendinParis lendshersomemagazinesfromhome,shetakesspecialpleasureinastorybyKawabataYasunari: AbundleofJapanesemagazineswasdeliveredfromMr.K.He'ssuchakindperson.AshortstorybyKawabataentitled"FallingLeaves"wasprintedinKaizo45Ipouredoverit sittingnexttothestove.AsIreadit,Ifeltanostalgiacomeoverme,asifIcouldactuallysmellthearomaofJapan.46ThisfarandawaysurpassesEuropeanliterature,Ithought.47

AfterreturninghometoJapanfromEurope,FumikostillvividlyrememberedhowshewasstruckbythebeautyofpoetrywritteninJapanese: UponmyreturntoJapan,mythoughtscenteredonwantingtowritesomewonderfulpoetry....WhileIwasinEurope,IfeltsurprisedatthebeautyoftheJapaneselanguage.Ifelt proudofthepoemswritteninthatlanguage,likeaprospectorwhohadstruckgold.48

Ibelievethat,inadditiontothecontent,theverylanguageoftheshortstorycausedhertobecomenostalgic.Itmusthavebeendifficult,givenherlimitedEnglishand French,forFumikotofullyappreciateparticularlygoodwritinginaforeignlanguage.ButinJapanese,itwaseasytorecognizegoodliterature,andtheoccasional perusalofcertainworksstruckaparticularlydeepchordinhersoul. Fumikoalsomissedthesmells,sounds,andtastesofJapan.InalmosteverytraveloguetherearecomparisonsofJapanandtheforeigncountryinwhichsheistraveling intermsoftheodors,thefood,andthescenery.In"FromNewsfromFrance"sheexpressesdissatisfactionwiththefactthattheditchesinParishavenosmelland withthelackofexposedbaregroundinthecity.49In"SundayinNaples"sherecallshow,whenshewasachild,thestreetmusiciansinJapanwouldentertainherwith sadsongs.50In''ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis"shelongstoreturntoJapantoeatacheapbowlofnoodles.51 NostalgiaforFumiko,then,wasamixtureoflongingformanydif­

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ferentthings,butallthingsassociatedwithhome.Inotherwords,shewasnostalgicfortheaspectsofaphysicalgeographicallocation,notforaspaceintime.Fumiko almostneverrecallsthepastinanidealizedfashion(incomparisonwiththepresent).Herfictionalcharactersarelikewisenostalgicforplaces,nottimes,althoughon occasionthecharacters'nostalgiaisexpressedinsuchawayastocloselyconnectthetwo,asinthecaseofYukikoinDriftingCloudswholongsforareturntopast dayswhenshelivedabroad. RyoshuandTravelinFumiko'sFiction BeforeexaminingFumiko'suseofryoshuinherfictionitisimportantfirsttounderstandherdefinitionanduseoftheterm.TheEuropeantraveloguesillustratewellthe nostalgiaandlonelinessdirectlycausedbytravel.WhenFumikosaysinthosepiecesthatsheexperiencedryoshu,itisclearthatshemeans"lonelinessonajourney" andlittleelse.This,however,isnottheonlycontextinwhichFumikousesthetermryoshu.Inherfictionthewordhasamuchbroaderscopeofmeaning, encompassinganarrayofsademotionscausedbyanumberofcatalysts.Indeed,Fumikousesryoshueveninsituationsthathavenoconnectiontotravelwhatsoever. NojimaHideyoshinotesthatthewordryoshuappearsofteninDiaryofaVagabond,andthatFumikousesthewordinauniquewaytoindicatealongingbutnot onenecessarilyrelatedtotravel.52Sheusesthewordtomeanthegenerallongingonefeelsnotforanyparticulareventorobjectbutratherformeaningfulhuman interaction,asintheexpression"Ispatoutmylonging(ryoshu)forthatwretchedman."53Thisryoshuisalongingforarelationshipthatnevercomestobe.In anotherinstance,Fumikousesryoshuintheexpression"thelongingofone'seyetrainedonmankind"(ningenomirumenoryoshu),which,similartothefirst sentence,expressesthelongingformeaningfulinteractionwiththosesheseesaroundher.54Nojimasummarizestheuseandmeaningofthesetwoexpressionsinthe followingway: Needlesstosay,"humanlonging"and"thelongingofone'seyetrainedonmankind"aretheexpressionsofalonelyperson.Toputitanotherway,ryoshuisnoneotherthanthe lyricalexpressionofthelonelinessofhumanexistence.55

And"lonelinessofhumanexistence"isanotherexpressionfortheconstantlongingformeaningfulhumaninteractiononthepartoftheindividual.Whatisofutmost interest,however,isthatFumikochoseawordthatliterallymeans"lonelinessonajourney"tomeansimply"loneliness."Thespatialseparationofthejourneyis extendedtoallseparations.

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ItisnocoincidencethatFumikouseswordsrelatedtotraveltoexpressloneliness,nordidshedosobecauseshelackedthevocabularytodescribelonelinessinother terms.ForFumiko,travelandthenostalgiathataccompanieditwereunquestionablylinkedtohumanlonelinessasawhole.Thecharactersinherfictionexperience lonelinessintheformofnostalgia,eitherforplacestheyhadvisitedorforrelationshipsthathavebeenirretrievablylost.Likewise,lonelinessisunquestionablylinkedto nostalgia.Whenhercharactersfeellonely,theyfeelnotpsychologicalisolationfromothersbutratheralongingforsomethingfromwhichtheyhavebecomephysically distanced. TwoofFumiko'sshortstories,"Ryojunoumi"(TheSeaofTravelWeariness,1946)and"Hatsutabi"(MaidenVoyage,1941)exemplifytheauthor'streatmentof travelandtravelloneliness.Theformerisnot,contrarytowhatthetitlesuggests,astoryprimarilyabouttravel.Rather,itisaboutamanwho,throughaseriesof misfortunes,isdrivenfromonewayoflifetoanother.Thelatterisastoryaboutayounggirlwhohasjustgraduatedfromschoolandwhoyearnstotravelabroad insteadofmarryingthemanchosenforherbyherfamily. "TheSeaofTravelWeariness"isnarratedbysomeone(identifiedonlyas"I")whoknowsthecentralcharacter,Shida,throughcommonacquaintances.Shidaisaquiet manwhoismarriedbutchildless.Beforethewar,hewasanairplanebuffwhoownedhisownairstrip.TheairstripandtheairplanesareconfiscatedbytheJapanese armyduringthewarandsoShidamovestoHokkaidoandstartsanewairstrip.This,too,isconfiscatedbytheJapanesearmyandfinallyShidadecidestorideoutthe remainderofthewar—althoughthefinancialmeansbywhichhedoessoarenotclear—practicingtheshamisenandothermusicalinstruments.Shidaisdescribedasa "Columbustype,"meaningthathepersevereseveninthefaceofgreatdifficulty.Asaresultofthisperseverance,hetendstoberathersolitary—thisisemphasizedbya narrativethattellsusnothingaboutShida'swife,family,orfriends.Oneday,ShidasetsoutonatriptoShizuoka,wherehemusttendtosomebusiness.Onthe journey,hemeetsInoueMinoru,anine­year­oldwarorphanwhohasbeenabandonedbyhisaunt,asinglewomanunabletocareforhim.Shidaisdeeplymovedby theplightoftheboy,whohasbeenleftalonetofendforhimself.ThetwobecomefriendsandShidadecidesthathewilladoptMinoruandtakehimhome. Thepurportofthisstoryismainlytoprotestwar;thesorrowanddevastationinbothShida'sandMinoru'slivesisdirectlycausedbythewar,andFumikoisclearly opposedtoit.Asecondarytheme,however—asreflectedinthetitle—isthewearinesscausedbyboththeactualjourneythatShidatakestoShizuokaandthe figurativejourneythatheandMinorutakethroughthehardshipscausedbythewar.Afterrelin­

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quishinghisairfields,Shidapushesontofindnewactivitiestooccupyhimselfandappearstobequiteastalwartindividual,buthisacquaintancewithMinorurevealsa soft,nostalgicsidetothetoughman.Thissoftsideisrevealedintheformofsuddenreflectionandsensitivityuntilthenabsentinhim,anditisplainlybroughtaboutby hisawarenessoftheboy's(andhisown)loneliness.TheircommonlonelinesscausesShidatothinkaboutthemeaningofwarinhumanhistory,andhedrawsstrength fromhisconclusionsthatwariswrong. "TheSeaofTravelWeariness"doesnotexpressthepreviouslymentionedsequenceof"loneliness,incentive,motivation"intheclearlanguagethatmanyofFumiko's otherworksuse,butthesequenceispresentnonetheless.Intheclosingofthestory,Shida'sfeelingstowardthewararerevealed: Peoplearegiftedwiththequalitytoforgetthatwhichitisconvenienttoforget,Shidathought,buttostartsuchabrutalwarjusttwentyorthirtyyearsafterthelastisunbearable. Hethoughthowwastefulitwasfortheyoungmenoftheairforcetobedyingheroes'deaths,butatthesametimehefelthisstomachknotupinangeratthethoughtthatsuch wasthenatureofwar.Shidafelldeeperanddeeperintoloneliness,hisburningthoughtsfadedaway,andgraduallyhelethimselfdriftintoastatenotfarfromthatofanoldman. ButShida'sbodywentagainstthetenorofhisheart,andremainedyoungandvital.ThatyoungbodywouldsometimestakeholdofShida'sspirituallyagingmindand occasionallymakethatmindinquireintothoughts—thoughtsthatweremuchlikelove.Itwasprobablyhisbodythatmadehimlearntoplaytheshamisen,andtinkerwith machines,andalsomadehimsofascinatedwiththechildhehadtakenin.56

Inthispassage,Fumikoidentifieslonelinesswithone'sspiritandoptimismwithone'sbody.ThisdivisionofspiritandbodyisnotusedinanyoftheEuropean travelogues,butthelonelinessandhappinessthetwocauseshouldbequitefamiliartothereader.The"loneliness,inspiration,motivation"sequenceisseenhere,too: Shida'smindisovercomewithloneliness;thelonelinessofthemindinspiresthebody;andthebodydrivesthewholepersontoengageinactivities(playingthe shamisen,etc.)whichcausehimtobehappy. Fumiko'suseofthewordryoju(travelweariness)inthetitleofthispiecerevealshowtightlyconnectedtheideaoftravelistotheemotionsoflonelinessand happiness.WhileitistruethatShidameetsMinoruonajourney,theactualactoftravelisnotanimportantcauseoftheemotionsheexperiencesinthestory.Rather,it isthefigurativejourney—fromthedepthsoflonelinessinhismindtothehappinessbroughtonbyhisphysicalbody—aroundwhichthenarrativerevolves.For Fumiko,ryojuwasthemostappropriatetermtodescribeShida'sfeelings;theyfol­

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lowedthesameprogressionthatherfeelingsoftendidwhiletraveling. Whereas"TheSeaofTravelWeariness"illustrateshowcloselyFumikoassociatedtravelwithemotion,"MaidenVoyage"illustrateshowcloselysherelatedtravelto life."MaidenVoyage"isatouchingstoryaboutthecomingofageofagirl,Aiko.Attheopeningofthenarrative,Aikohasjustgraduatedfromschoolandisfacingan arrangedmarriagetoSachio,amanelevenyearshersenior.SachioisaformerbotanistwhoispresentlystudyinginthelawdepartmentofWasedaUniversity. MarriagetohimwouldmeanaquietlifeforAiko,andshehasreservationsaboutthemarriagebecauseshewouldmuchrathergotraveling,likeherfriend,Sayoko, whoplanstogotoManchuriaaftergraduationtowork. AikoandSayokoarebestfriendsfromschool.SayokosaysthateventhoughsheisleavingforManchuriainafewdays,shewishesshecouldremainaschoolgirlfor therestofherlife.Aiko,fatedtomarrysoonandremaininJapan,wishesthatshecouldtravelfaraway. Aikospeaksaboutherimpendingmarriage(andherconcernsthereof)toherstepmother,Shizuko,whotellsherthatsheshouldbesatisfiedwiththehappylifeshehas. Aikoreplies,"Butthisisnotahappinessofmyownmaking.Idon'twanttospendmylifeasaninn­keeper'swife."57Later,duringaconversationwithSachiowhois visitingfromTokyo,sheblurtsout,"Totellthetruth,I'mtroubledbythethoughtofmarriagetoyou."58Sachioisstartledbythisstatement,butheisnotangry.He resignshimselftothefactthatthemarriageisnotmeanttobeandshortlydepartsforTokyo.HesendsatelegramtoSachio'sfamilyfromOkayamawhichreads,"Off toTokyo.LeavealonematterwithAiko.Sachio."59 ThreedaysafterSachioleaves,AikovisitsSayokoontheeveofherdeparture.Theattitudesofthetwogirlschangecompletely;Aikosuddenlyfindsherselfintearsat therealitythatsheandherfriendmustentertheadultworld.Sayokonowfindssuchchildishnessbothersome,assheisexcitedaboutherupcomingjourney. Inthefinalsectionof"MaidenVoyage,"AikoandShizukoareridingthetraintoTokyo.Thereisnoexplanationofwhattheirbusinessthereis,butitisimpliedthat AikoisgoingtoseeSachioinanattempttoconvincehimtomarryher.Aikofinallycomestotermswithherself,andrealizessheishappywithhersituation: Itwasaclearday,andthecherryandpearblossomswereinearlybloom.Asshepassedalongthisroute,AikowonderednostalgicallyifitwasthesameonealongwhichSachio's trainhadrumbled.Shewashappythatshecouldviewherhometownanewfromthewindowofthemovingtrain,asitprovidedachancetoretrospect.AikotookTheTen TeachingsofEkikenfromherbagsandthumbedthroughthe

Page91 book."60Hereyeschancedtostoponthesentence,"Whenthespiritisabsent,onelooksbutdoesnotsee.Oneisunawarethattherearethingstomakeonebrimwithhappiness rightbeforeone'seyes..."Somethingmadeherfeellikesmilingassheplacedthebookdowninherlap.... ...Aikohadnotabitofsadnessinherheartnow.ShewantedtoarriveinTokyoquicklyandcryopenlytoSachio.Shefeltnowthatitwassomehowashametohavecriedthe otherdayatSayoko'shouse,buttherewasnothingshecoulddoaboutit.Aikohadhadnoideathatshecouldsoenjoythisthingcalledatraintrip.61

Thusthetraintripthatshecovetedsomuchdeliversherintothelifethatshefearedwouldmakethattripimpossible. "MaidenVoyage"isaveryshortpiece,butitistightlystructuredtoincludemanyimagesoftravel.Therearetwoliteraljourneys(Sayoko'stoManchuriaandAiko'sto Tokyo)andtherearetwofigurativejourneys(thetwogirls'passagefromadolescencetoadulthood).Theliteraljourneysprovidethestimulithatcausethegirlstotake thefigurativejourneys.Thecombinationofliteralandfigurativejourneyscreatesatextcenteredonmovement,andthroughoutthepiecethereaderiskeenlyawareof thechangeandmovementoccurringinthecharacters'lives.Itisnotastaticpiecethatdescribesonestate;rather,itmovessteadily,muchinthesamewayasatraveler movesalongachosenroute. Asinthecaseof"TheSeaofTravelWeariness,"Fumiko'schoiceoftitlefor"MaidenVoyage"reflectsthefactthattravelimagerywasanimportantelementinher writing.Usingajourneyasametaphorforone'slifeisnotuniquetoher,butIfeelthatitisimportanttonotehowtravelandtravel­relatedemotionsappearrepeatedly inherwriting."TheSeaofTravelWeariness"expressestheaestheticoflonelinessthatFumikoassociatedsocloselywithtravel,and"MaidenVoyage"showshow similaractualtravelandemotionaltravelcanbe. AlthoughtravelhadastronginfluenceonFumiko'sfictionwriting,hertreatmentoftravelinbothoftheseshortstoriesdoesnotcloselyresemblethatinthetravelogues previouslydiscussed.Thelackofsimilarity,however,doesnotnegatetheideathattravelisanimportantfactorinherwork;onestimuluscancertainlyresultinmore thanonetypeofreaction,andtravelisundeniablyattheheartofalltheworksdiscussedabove,nomatterhowitisexpressed.Moreover,thejuxtapositionof lonelinessandhappiness—thetwoemotionsbroughtaboutbytravelasexpressedinhertraveloguesbutabsentin"TheSeaofTravelWeariness"and"Maiden Voyage"—isalsopresentinsomeofherworksoffiction.Forthepurposeofbrevity,IshalllimitmydiscussionheretoDiaryofaVagabondandDriftingClouds, butitshouldbenotedthattherearemanyworksthatexpresssimilaremotions.62

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DiaryofaVagabondisanovelaboutajourney:notaconventionaljourneyinwhichoneleaveshome,travelstoagivenlocation,andthenreturnshome,butrathera journeyinwhichtheprotagonistisconstantlymovingforward,withnoreturn.Thetextdescribesherconstantlywaveringbetweenthestableexistenceofonewitha permanenthome,job,andfamilyandthelifeofavagabond.Shealwayschoosesthelatterovertheformer—sheisnotfiredfromherjob,shequits;sheisnotevicted fromherhome,shechoosestomove—becauseastableexistencewouldmeananendtothe"loneliness,inspiration,motivation"sequenceinherlife.Apermanent homewasasforeigntoFumikoasvagabondagewastotheaverageJapaneseofthetime.63IntheopeningpassageofDiaryofaVagabond,sheexplainshow "travel"isher"hometown": IlearnedthefollowingsonginaschoolinKyoshu: Thetraveler'ssky Onalateautumnevening Troublesthesolitaryperson withlonelythoughts Dearesthometown Belovedparents Iamfatedtobeavagabond.Ihavenohometown.MyfatherwasadrygoodstravelingsalesmanfromIyoinShikoku.Mymotheristhedaughterofahotspringinnkeeperfrom SakurajimainKyoshu.Mymother,havingmarriedsomeonefromadifferentprovince,wasbanishedfromKagoshima.Theplacethatsheandmyfatherfoundinwhichtosettle downwasShimonosekiinYamaguchiPrefecture.IwasborninthetownofShimonoseki. Borntoparentswhowerenotmembersofanycommunity,Iconsequentlyhadtravelasmyhometown.64Thusbeingatravelerbyfate,IfeltquitelonelyasIlearnedthis"Dearest Hometown"song.65

ThispassagemayseemtoimplythatFumikolongsforahometown,butthefollowingparagraphstellofahappychildhoodontheroad.Indeed,theentiretyofDiary ofaVagabondisflavoredwithaconstanturgetomoveon.ThedesireforahometownisnothingmorethanthesamelonelinessandnostalgiaexpressedinFumiko's travelogues,anditisthoseemotionsforwhichFumikoyearns.Shedoesnotwantthoseemotions(nostalgiaandloneliness)tobesuspendedbyaeliminationoftheir cause(uprootedness);rather,shewantstoperpetuatethecause(i.e.,tocontinuetotravel)inordertoperpetuatetheemotions.Shedoesnotfeeltheforlornnessof contemporaryKobayashiHideo(1902–1983),who,onthesubjectofhometowns,commentsthat"wherethereisnomemory,thereisnohome.Ifapersondoesnot possesspowerfulmemories,

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createdfromanaccumulationofhardandfastimagesthatahardandfastenvironmentprovides,hewillnotknowthatsenseofwell­beingwhichbrimsoverinthe word[hometown]."66LikeKobayashi,Fumikodidnothavea"hardandfast"environment,butdidshemanagetohaveafeelingof"well­being,"onethatwas associatedwiththethrillofconstantflux. LiketheEuropeantravelogues,DiaryofaVagabondoftenjuxtaposesthehappinessandlonelinesscausedbytravel.Inthefollowingscene,sheisridingthetrain hometovisithermother: Aloneinthevestibuleatdawn,mydaydreamsturnedtheirbackonmyhometownandfledtowardsthecity.67BecauseIhavetravelasmytruehometown,thereisnoneedforme toreturnhomealldeckedout.68ForsomereasonIwasovercomewithalonesomefeeling.Ireturnedtothedarkthird­classcar,whichwaslikeacellar,tofindsomestewed seaweedandmisosoupunceremoniouslyplacedonawornlacquertrayonmyblanket.IfeltasortofsadnessandtediumasIsatunderthedimlampamongacrowdofitinerant actors,apilgrim,andafishermanwithhischildren.69Anoldwomanasked,"Whereareyoufrom?"whenshesawthatIhadmyhairtiedupintheichogaeshistyle.70Therewas alsoayoungmanwhoaskedme,"Where'reyouheaded?"Ayoungmother,whowaslyingwithherchildofabouttwo,quietlysangalullabythatIhadonceheardwhilegrowing upontheroad.... UponthisrefreshingseaIwasfreetodrinkintheair,moresothanIevercouldfatiguedandinsomedirtynookinthecity.Itallmademethinkthatlifewasagoodthingafterall.71

Thispassagedescribesthesqualorofthethird­classtraincar,thenthenostalgiathatFumikofeelsamongtheothertravelers,andfinallydrawsinspirationfromboth. The"loneliness,inspiration,motivation"sequenceisclearlypresent,andtheadventoftraveliscelebratedhereandthroughoutthetextofDiaryofaVagabond.It shouldbenosurprisethenthatFumikooncesaid,"IshalltakethelifedepictedinDiaryofaVagabondandmakeitmycornerstone."72 ThenovelDriftingCloudsisthestoryofayoung,singlewoman,KodaYukiko,whodecidestojointhewareffortduringWorldWarIIandissenttoFrench IndochinatoworkasatypistfortheJapaneseMinistryofAgricultureandForestryinitsfieldofficeinDalat.Whilethere,shefallsinlovewithandhasanaffairwith oneofherco­workers,TomiokaKengo.TomiokahasawifeandfamilybackinJapan,buthetellsYukikothathewillgetadivorcewhenhereturnshomeandmarry her.AfterreturningtoJapan,YukikofindsthatTomiokaisnotinterestedindivorceanylonger,andtheirrelationshipslowlydeterioratesuntilitendscompletely.The novelisfullofnostalgicpassagesinwhich

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YukikodreamsofthedaysinDalatandthehappinessshefoundthere.ShelongstoreturntothemountainsofFrenchIndochina,wherelifewaspeacefulandquiet, andshealsolongsforherrelationshipwithTomiokaasitoncewas,butshecanhaveneither.Tomioka,too,thinksbackfondlyonhisrelationshipnotonlywith YukikobutalsowithhisVietnamesemaid,Nhu.Hespendsmuchofhistimepiningforthesepastrelationships,andalsodreamsofpasthappierdayswithhiswife.But whereYukikoremainsdrivenbyromanticmemoriesofherpast,TomiokatriestobreakfreebyplanningadoublesuicidewithYukikotoendtheiraffair. Theideatocommitsuicideisaspontaneousoneratherthanapremeditatedplan.TomiokasuggeststoYukikothatthetwoofthemgototheresortofIkahotospend theNewYear'sholidays.ShehasupuntilthatpointbeenthinkingaboutsearchingouttheirfriendKano(towardwhomshehasslightlyromanticinclinations)butthe suggestionoftravel,perhapstoexperiencethenostalgiaofbygonedays,drawsherinimmediately.Whileshethinkssuchthoughts,Tomiokasilentlythinksabouther death: "Well,onlythreemoredays,huh?" "What?" "NewYear'sDayiscoming." "Gee,NewYear'sDay?Ithadtotallyslippedmymind." "Howaboutit?WouldyouliketogotoIkahoorNikkotoday?" "Um...I'veneverbeentoIkaho,butallright.I'dliketosplasharoundinahotbath.Canyoureallygo?" "Icanifit'sjustforanightortwo.Wanttogo?"Tomiokafeltlikeatinylittlehumansoulfloatingintheseaofeternity.Wouldn'titbebest,hefeltatthemoment,ifheweretoend itallwithYukikoamongthedry,witheredtreesinthemountains.(Yousittheresmilingaway,unawareofyourimminentdeathatmyhands...)73TomiokawatchedYukikoeather friednoodleswithavoraciousappetite.Smallgoldplatedearringshungfromherears.Herblackhairwascutshort,justabovethecollar. "Won'tIkahobecold?" "Yeah,butIdon'tcare." "Meneither."Yukikowascheery,justlikeshewasayoungbridediscussingplansforherhoneymoon.SheputKano'scardawayinherhandbag,tookouthercompact,and openedupthemirrorbeforeherface. Tomiokacontemplatedthescenarioofkillingthiswoman.74

Althoughthesuicideisaverted,thejourneyisstillfatedfromthebeginningtodisappointYukiko,whohasexpectedthechancetoreconcileherdifferenceswith Tomioka.Aftertheyhavebeenattheinnforafewdays,Yukikorealizesthatitishopeless,butinsteadofgivingupand

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turningtodeath,shedecidestoreturntoTokyoandcontinueonwithherlife.ThispassagecombinesFumiko'scharacteristicoptimismandher"loneliness,inspiration, motivation"sequence: Yukikocrawledalongonherbelly,tookherwatchoffthebedsidetableandtookalookatit.Itwasabitpastfour.Lastnighttheremayhavebeentalkofthetwoofthemdying, butnowshewasn'tthinkingaboutdeathatall.Shethoughtabouthowsenselessitwouldbetodieinaplacelikethis.AndshethoughtthatTomiokawasnottruthfullyspeaking hismind.TodayshewouldpawnthiswatchandgobacktoherhomeinIkebukuro.ThememoriesthatthetwoofthemsharedfromIndochinaweremerelyfetterswhichcalledto theirsouls;asfarasthetwopeoplesleepingherewereconcerned,theyweredreamingintotallydifferentdirections.75

ButTomiokaisreluctanttoleave,andthetworemainattheresortforawhilelonger.Theymakemanyattemptsatareunion,buteachtimeoneofthembacksaway fromtheother.Theiremotionsfluctuateincongruously,causingtherelationshiptobepunctuatedbyaseriesofdisappointedexpectations.WhenYukikorealizesthat TomiokaishavinganaffairwithamaidattheinnatIkaho,shefindssolaceinhermemoriesofIndochina: Ontheothersideofthebedthereweretwentyorsovolumesofforestrybookspiledup.OntopofthebookstherewasapamphletYukikohadseenbefore,writteninFrenchand putoutbytheLangBianAgricultureCommissiononvirginforestregions.ItwasunmistakablytheonewrittenbyDaBiao,theForestryManager.76Yukikowassuddenly overcomebyapainfulnostalgia,andshetookthepamphletinherhandsandgazedatthebeautifulpicturesoftheFrenchIndochineseforests.Thetearsglidednaturallydownher cheeks.Everypicturecouldnotbutstirmemories.HereyesstoppedbychanceonapictureofacountryhouseontheLangBianplateau,surroundedbybougainvilleaandmimosa flowers.ThemajesticlandscapeofLangBian,encircledbymountainswithalakeintheforeground,wasofindescribableconsolationtoYukikonow.77

Inthispassage,YukikoiscomfortedbythememoriesofherjourneytoIndochina.Therearemanysimilarpassagesinwhichshefondlyrecallsthelandscapeofthe areaaroundDalat,andallexpressherlongingtoreturntoFrenchIndochina.AlthoughshelivedandworkedinDalat,thetimeshespenttherecanstillbeconsidereda "journey,"inthesensethatshewasawayfromhomeforaperiodoftime,afterwhichshereturned. Thereisanoverallsenseoflossinthisnovel:lossofinnocence,lossoflove,andlossofanexperience(livinginIndochina)nevertobehadagain.78Centraltotheloss istheconstantmemoryofwhatwasandhowthingshavechanged.ThereturntoJapan—theendofthejourneytoIndochina—affectseachcharacternegatively. YukikoandTomiokalose

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thelovetheyonceshared;theirco­workerKano,whowaswiththeminIndochinaandlaterreturnedtoJapan,contractsafatalcaseoftuberculosis.Fumikoclearly indicatesthatthepointofrepatriationwasthetimewhenthingsturnedsourwhenshesays,''ItwasnotjustTomiokawhohadgonethoroughlybadsincehecameback toJapan.Kano,too,hadbecomearuinedman."79 ItisimportanttonotethatYukikodoesnotlongforthepast;beforeherjourneytoIndochina,sheledanunhappylifeandyieldedtothesexualadvancesofhersister's brother­in­law,IbaSugio,inordertoavoidbeingthrownoutofhishousewithnoplaceelsetolive.Whatshelongsforisthejourneythattookherawayfromthat miserableexistence. ThetravelelementinDriftingCloudsdiffersfromthatinFumiko'snonfictiontraveloguesinthatthereisnoindicationoflongingornostalgiaforJapanduringthetime thatYukikoisinIndochina.Thelongingcomes,aswehaveseen,afterthejourneyisover.Nonetheless,thelonelinessandnostalgiathatYukikofeelsaredirectlytied totravel;theyaretheresultofwishingforthecontinuationorreestablishmentofthejourney.YukikoissurethatifonlysheandTomiokacouldreturntothemountains ofIndochina,theirrelationshipwouldbeasitwasbefore. Inafinalattempttosalvagetheirrelationship,YukikodecidestoaccompanyTomioka(whoisbythenawidower)totheremoteislandofYaku,offthesoutherncoast ofKyoshu.AlthoughYakuisnotIndochina,theideaofgoingonatripwithTomiokahasbecomesoimportanttoYukikothatsheacceptsthejourneyasananswerto theirproblems.Itisonthatjourneythatshefallsillwithtuberculosisanddies,nevertoregainthehappinesssheoncehad. Escapism Fumiko'scharactersoftenexpressthedesiretoleavetheirpresentsituationandescapetoadistantplace,andquiteoftentheysucceedinatleastatemporaryflight fromtheirproblems.Ajourneyisoftenthesceneofdramaticplotdevelopmentsandthecharactersholdtheeventsofthosejourneyscloseintheirheartslongafter theyhavereturnedhome. Thefollowingpassagesdemonstratethisphenomenon.Evenwithoutthecontext,theimportanceofescapeisclear: Iturnedtheoldtimetableoverandlookedatit.IthoughtabouthowI'dliketogoonajourneyfaraway.I'dliketoabandonthiscityoffalsityandgoofftobreatheintheairofthe mountainsorthesea.(DiaryofaVagabond,Shincho*HFZvol.2,153) "I'vegotsomethingI'dliketotalkaboutwithyou.I'dreallyliketogosomewhereonatriptonight."Havingblurtedthisout,Miyamori

Page97 wassurprisedathisowncourage.Hecouldnotstandthethoughtofallthementalanguishandpainthatpartingagainwouldbring.(Daininokekkon[SecondMarriage],HFZ vol.13,353) Tomojiwantedtoriseagainsthisfather'sselfishness,soheturnedtowardshisdesk,pickedupabookthatwassittingthere,andstartedleafingthroughthepages.Hewanteda tasteofalifeinwhichfreshgreenleavesflutteredontrees. Hewantedtosetoffonaboatacrossthewideoceans.Anycountrywouldbefine,aslongasitwasnotthissqualidplace.Hedaydreamedabouttakingalittletriponaforeign ship.(RoseofSharon,HFZvol.12,185) WhenIworkedinastockbroker'syearsagoIhadseensuchlargebills,butthiswasthefirsttimeIhadgazedattheminmyownpossession.IthoughtabouthowI'dliketotake thesethreehundredyenandgoonalongjourneytoafar,farawayplace.Myfatherhadtoldmetousethemoneyforweddingpreparations,butIsuddenlythoughtofMr.Fang, andIthoughtabouthowI'dliketoseehiscountry,China,justonce.(OnePerson'sLife,Shincho*HFZvol.8,61) ThecoldnessofKikuyo'shandswassuddenlyrevealedforallitwas.Yamamotogentlyletgoherhandandsaid,"Iintendtogo,withyou,today,onatriptoaplacewherenobody knowsus,andthatiswhyIhavepreparedthisbag.Iwillhonorablycutofftherecentarrangementsformymarriage[toanotherwoman]onceweareatourdestination."(River Song,Shincho*HFZvol.20,240) OnceithadbeensuggestedthatshegotoKobe,TomokosuddenlyfeltthedesiretoturnherbackonTokyo.Shefeltthattheremustbeaninterestinglife,differentfromhersin Tokyo,insomeotherplace.IntheendofOctober,sheshutuphersecondfloorapartmentinTsukijiandsetoffwithSetoonatriptoKobe.(Fuyunoringo[WinterApples,1950], Shincho*HFZvol.22,25)

Ineachcase,thecharacterseestravelasanescapefromhisorherproblems.Insomecases,travelreallydoesaffordasolution,butinmostinstancesitisbuta temporaryrespitefromone'stroubles.Therespitedoes,however,providethecharacterwiththechancetodistancehimorherselffromdifficulties,andoftenthat distanceprovidesahelpfulperspective. ThenovelthatismostparadigmaticinthisregardisChaironome(BrownEyes,1949).BrownEyesisaboutamarriedcouplewhonolongergetalongwelltogether. Thehusband,Juichi,wantsadivorcebuthiswife,Mineko,refusestogranthimone.Neitherspouseishappywiththemarriage,buttheyhavedifferentopinionson whatshouldbedone.Juichiwouldliketodivorceandmarryhismistress,Fusako.Minekohasnoloverandwantstoremainmarriedasamethodofexactingrevenge

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onJuichi.Thestoryistoldinthethirdpersonandportrayseachspouse'sperspectiveinalternatesections.Thebrillianceofthisnovelisintheportrayalofthegradual increaseoftensionbetweenthetwo.Theendofthenovelseesthetwostillmarried,butdespisingeachothermorethanever. MountinganimositybetweenJuichiandMinekocausebothtoleavehomeontripsofescape.InJuichi'scase,hetravelstoOsaka*tovisitFusako,whohasreturned theretocareforheryoungson.HealsogoestoahotspringsresortwithFusakoonawhim,anditisthattripwhichseemstobethebeginningoftheendofhis marriagetoMineko.Minekodisappearsonherowntriptoherparents'houseforthreedayswithouttellingJuichiwheresheisgoing.Eachtimethespousesreunite afteronehasreturnedfromatrip,theyexchangeangrywordsandsoonafterthatoneortheotherleavesagainonanotherjourney.Distancefromtheirhomeprovides eachwithafeelingofrelief,andsothedesiretoescapeonajourneygrowsstrongerasthebondofmarriagegrowsweaker.Oneday,earlyinthenovel,thetwovie fortheopportunitytoleavethehouse: "I'mheadedoutat8:30today,socouldyousetoutanundershirtandflanneletteforme?"Juichisaid. Minekopatteddownthefloorcushionandsoakedinthemorningsun'srays,whichwerecomingthroughtheglassdoors.Sheexaminedhergold­coloredreadingglasses."Oh? You'regoingout?Youdidn'tsayanythingaboutitlastnight,didyou?I'mgoingoutwithYoshimitoday.ThankstobeingsodependentonyourmeagermeansI'venotevenhad enoughtoeat,soIthoughtI'dgointosomesortofbusinesswithYoshimi.Sorry,butI'llhavetoaskyoutostayhomeandwatchthehousetoday." "Oh?You'regoingintobusiness?That'saseriousissue." "Ohreally?" "Doyouhavetodoittoday?" "Todayitmustbe." "Youdidn'tsayanythingaboutitlastnight,didyou?" "Youaresostupidsometimes...Ican'ttellifyouarebeingsarcasticorjustdull­witted." "SometimesIwanttobeabitdull­witted." "You?"Mineko'sbrowneyesnarrowedsuddenly,andwiththecushionsunderherarms,sheopenedtheclosetdoorwithherfoot.Juichiwasamazedatherdexterity,andhe pickeduptheremainingcushionsfrombehindherandplacedthemhighupinthecloset. "I'mreallygoingouttoday.Iabsolutelymustgo,"hesaid. "Whatisityou'vegottodo?" "I'vegotsomeimportantbusinessattheboss'shouse." "Really?" "Really."80

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Intheend,theybothleaveandhavethesecond­storyboarderwatchthehouse.Theopportunitytoescapeisusedinthispassagealmostlikeaweapon;Juichiand Minekoknowthattheopportunitytoleavethehouseisimportantnotonlytothemselfbuttotheother,too,andthechancetosnatchthatopportunityawayisachance topunish.OnceJuichiisoutofthehouse,hefeelsanimmenserelief: HearrivedatUguisudaniStationattwentyminutestoten.Itwasbittercoldontheplatform.Juichistoodatthestationexitinthechill,aharbingerofalongwintertocome.He gazedatthedirtystreetashesaunteredalonglikeachild.Hishappinessatthethoughtofbeingfarfromhomeandabouttomeetayoung,beautifulwomanevengavehimthe energytostandinthecoldfortwentyminutes.81

Escape,anddistancefromhome,bringJuichiasenseofcomfortandhappiness.Hisproblemsarecertainlynotsolvedbyrunningaway,butthesortoftemporary respiteitprovidesissomethingthatmanyofFumiko'scharactersseek.AndJuichi,likethoseothercharacters,isrejuvenatedbyhisescape.Itprovideshimwiththe energytolatergohomeandconfronttheloomingproblemofhisdisintegratingmarriage. IseeaconnectionbetweenthissortofescapismandFumiko'sfearofideology.WhenFumikofoundherselfheadedtowardsomesortofphilosophicalargument,she quicklysteeredherselfclearbychangingthesubjectorglossingoveritinanindecisivemanner.WhenlifebecomesdifficultforFumiko'scharacters,theydesirean escape;whentopicsandconceptsbecomedifficultforFumiko,shedesiresthesameescape.Ajourneyprovidestheescapeforhercharacters,andachangeof subjectprovidestheescapeforFumiko.Bothtypesofescapearedistractions,andthereadermaybetemptedtofaultFumikoforfailingtofacedifficultiesheadon, butinherfictionatleast,thecharactersalmostalwaysreturntothesourceoftheirproblemsafterbeingrejuvenatedbytheirrespite. ItisclearthattravelwasaformativepartofFumiko'schildhood,andthattravelremainedimportanttoherthroughoutherlife.Herfeelingsabouttravelarerecordedin bothheressaysandinhertravelogues,theformerbeingslightlymoreanalyticalthanthelatter,butbothrevealinghowtheauthorfeltaboutthesubject.Theemotionsof ryoshuandryojuappearofteninherwriting,evenwhenactualtravelisnotinvolved.ForFumiko,travelprovidedanopportunitytoexperiencetheseemotions,which shefoundpleasingandinspiring.Whencriticswriteaboutherworkasbeing"sorrowful"and"nostalgic"itistheemotionofryoshuofwhichtheyspeak.Andwhen theyspeakofherworkashaving''aspi­

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rations"and"humor,"theyaredescribingtheinspirationandconsequentmotivationthatresultedfromryoshu.82 TheimportanceofryoshutoFumikowasmonumental;wehaveseenhowitaffectedbothhertraveloguesandherfiction.Sheknewthattravelandryoshuwere centraltoherlife,andsheexpressedthisintheprologuetoacollectionoftraveloguespublishedin1939,Watashinokiko(MyTravelogues): Ihavealwayshadafeelingclosetoryoshu,whichisperhapsduetothefactthatIhavenotknownapermanenthomesincethetimeIwasalittlegirl. Ihavenevertakenatripthatwasmateriallyluxurious,butstillItravelquitefrequently,andmymemoriesfromthosejourneysaretherichesofmylife....Iamalwaysdaydreaming aboutgoingaway,ifIhadthechance,onaforeignfreightertoallthelittleportsandtownsintheworld.WhenItireofpeople,andamboredwithworldlymatters,Ithinkoftravel. ...Goingonatripandhavingthejoyofgraspingthetruthfromthemidstofthedelusionsthatsurroundoneinastrangeplace—formethatisanostalgicparadise,anditmakes mefeelmyfamiliarryoshu. Myspiritcanonlythriveinawhirlpoolofryoshu.83

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Chapter4 Marriage,Family,andWomen'sIssues AnystudentofJapaneseliteraturewhohasreadevenalittlecriticismonawomanwriterhasatsomepointcomeacrossthetermsjoryubungaku("women's literature")andjoryusakka("womanwriter").Whatdotheymean?And,moretothepoint,aretheycentraltounderstandingHayashiFumiko'swriting?1 Theterms unfortunatelyobscuremorethanilluminatethenatureofFumiko'sandotherwomen'swork,foranumberofreasons.Theterm"women'sliterature"isproblematicin thatithaschangedreferentsovertime.Moreover,itwasimposedonliteraturebycritics,notthewritersthemselves,conformingtothosecritics'ideals.Initially, ''women'sliterature"referredtoliteraturewrittenbywomen.Later,intheearlytwentiethcentury,itincludedbothliteraturewrittenwithafemaleaudienceinmindand literaturewritteninsomethingvaguelydeemedtobeafemininestyle,althoughwhatthiswouldbehasneverbeendefinitivelydetermined.Allofthesecategorizations presentproblems,becausethegenderofthewriterdoesnotdecidethenatureoftheprose,andnotallfemalereaderspreferthesamesortofwriting.YetJapanese literaryscholarshavecontinuedtousetheterms"women'sliterature"and"womanwriter"torefertodiverseworksandauthors,includingHayashiFumiko.Inmany casesitmaybeeasierforafemalewritertoaccuratelydepictthelifeofawomanandlikewiseeasierforamaletoaccuratelydepictthelifeofaman,butthisdoesnot preventawriterfromaccuratelyandsympatheticallydepictingthelivesofcharactersoftheoppositesex.Certainlymanywritershavedemonstratedsuchaskill,for example,NagaiKafu*(1879–1959)inhisnovelUdekurabe(GeishainRivalry,1917)andTanizakiJun'ichiro(1886–1965)inhisnovelsTadekuumushi(Some PreferNettles,1929)andSasameyuki(TheMakiokaSisters,1944),bothofwhommasterfullyportraytheirfemalecharacters.Likewise,HayashiFumikoportrays manyofhermalecharacterswithrichnessandrealism,asinhershortstory"Maihime"(DancingGirl,1940),whichisaboutamanwhoisopposedtothemarriagethat hisfamilyhasarrangedforhim,andin"Ame"(Rain,1946),thestoryofareturnedwarveteranwhohasbecomeestrangedfromhisfamilyandcountry.2

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Thegenderoftheauthordoesnotdeterminetheunderlyingmessageofanovel;mencanwrite—andhavewritten—aboutissuesspecifictowomenandviceversa. DespitethedistinctioninJapanesebetweenmen'sandwomen'sspeech,awriterisnotconstrainedtouseoneortheother;amalewriterisfreetodepictfeminine speechandafemalewritertodepictmasculinespeech.3 Nordoestheauthor'sgenderdeterminethegenderofhisorheraudience:plentyofwomenreadmen's novelsandviceversa.Clearlytheterm"women'sliterature"isaspeciousone,anddoesnotrefertoanindividuatedconcept. Thetermitselfaside,thereisstilltheissueofwhetherFumikowrotefeministworks.Ifwedefine'feminist'as"oforpertainingtofeminism"and'feminism'as"advocacy oftherightsofwomen(basedonthetheoryofequalityofthesexes),"thenFumikowasnotafeminist.WhileFumiko'sworksoftenfocusonthepoliticaloreconomic injusticessufferedbytheprotagonist,thegenderoftheprotagonistisnotusuallyattheheartofthematter;itwouldbemoreaccuratetosaythatsheadvocatesforthe individualthesamerightsgrantedotherindividuals.Butifwedefinefeminisminbroaderterms,suchas"oforpertainingtowomenandtheirqualities,"thencertainly Fumikowasafeminist.ManyofFumiko'sworksaddressproblemsuniquetowomen,suchastheproblemofanunwantedpregnancy—theshortstories"Canary"and ''Ajisai"(Hydrangea,1948)andthenovelDriftingCloudsallhaveprotagonistswhomustdecidebetweenhavinganabortionandgivingbirthtoababytheydonot want(andwhichinsomecaseswouldbeillegitimate).Theseareproblemswomenfaceinfamilysituationsinwhichtheirdesiresaregivensecondprioritytomen's desires.Fumikoalsooftendepictswomenonthefringesofsociety—womenwhowereengagedinnontraditionalemploymentsuchasfactorywork,andsoon—and bythisexampleindirectlypromotedtheideaofwomenbranchingoutfromhouseholdandfamilydutiesintotheworkplace. AnotherimportantwayinwhichFumikoaddressedwhatmightbetermedfeministconcernswasinherreinterpretationofhistory.Someofherworksfocuson historicalfemalefigures,figureswhohavebeengivenlittleattentionbutwhoinspiredFumikotoimaginewhattheirlivesmayhavebeenlike.4 Oneworkthatstands outisashortstoryentitled"Fudegaki"(Writing,1942),abouttheEdofictionwriterandNeo­ConfucianistTakizawaBakin(1767–1848),mostfamousforhisnovel NansoSatomihakkenden(TheStoryofEightDogs,1814–1832)inwhichheadvocatesstrictConfucianmorals.5 Bakinhadadaughter­in­law,Michi(1806– 1858),wifeofBakin'sonlysonSohaku(1798–1835)."Writing"isafictionalaccount,toldfromMichi'spointofview,ofwhatlifewaslikeinBakin'shousehold. InordertoappreciatewhatFumikodoesin"Writing,"itishelpful

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firsttoknowthehistoricalfactsasrecordedbyBakin'sbiographers.InhisbiographyofBakin,basedprimarilyonBakin'sowndiaries,LeonZolbroddescribesMichi asalearnedwomanwhobecameBakin'samanuensisneartheendofhislife.Zolbrodalsodescribestherelationshipthatthetwohadasinitiallystrainedbutlaterclose: Twoletters,toJozaiandKeiso,bothdatedJuly4,1840,markedO'Michi'sfirsteffortsasBakin'samanuensis.6BeforeSohaku'sdeathherlifeintheTakizawahouseholdhad affordedlittlejoy....O'MichirepeatedlysufferedSohaku'sabuse,andbeinghigh­strungbynature,shewouldsometimeswithdrawtoherroom,refusetoeat,andfinallybecome ill.O'HyakuwouldthennurseherandBakinofferhersomemedicine...butSohakugenerally"refusedtocomenearandremainedasill­temperedasever." Bakin'spooropinionofherfamilymustalsohavepainedO'Michi.Initiallyheshowedrespectforherfather,Genryu,andherelderbrother,Gen'yu,bothphysicians,butBakinlater assertedthattheywere"quacks."HesarcasticallyreferredtoGenryu'swifeasO'Michi's"mother­nunfromAzabu,"andhedescribedhervisitsas"hatefulintheextreme." [AfterSohaku'sdeath]O'MichiandBakingrewcloser.Atfirst,shemerelypreparedandmarketedthemedicinesandkeptfinancialrecordsforit.Latersheassumedadditional responsibilities."Itwouldbeimpossiblewithouther,"hewroteonApril19,1837.Hepraisedheras"anunflaggingworker,"andsheservedhiminmanyways,largeandsmall.7

AsBakin'seyesightfailedhim,Michi'sresponsibilitiesincreased,tothepointthatshewrotethelastchaptersofTheStoryofEightDogsfromdictation.8 Zolbrod summarizestherelationshipbysayingthat"inbothpracticalandintellectualmatters,theyhadachievedararepartnership."9 ItisclearthatwithoutMichi'shelp,Bakin couldnothavefinishedTheStoryofEightDogs,themasterpieceofhiswritingcareer. Itisthislatterpointof"intellectualmatters,"andnottheworkingpartnershipthatBakin'sdiariesrecord,whichmusthavecaughtFumiko'sattention.Whenshesat downtotellthefictionalizedstoryofBakin'slastyearsthroughMichi'seyes,sheportrayedMichiasanoppressedwomanwhodidnotlikeherfather­in­law,aman whofeltthatwomenandtheirwritingwereinsignificantcomparedtomenandtheirs.When"Writing"opens,Bakinisalreadyneartheendofhislife,sufferingfrombad healthandnearlyblind.HeisobsessedwithwritingTheStoryofEightDogs,andthathastakenprecedenceoverconsiderationfortheothermembersofthefamily. Herefusesoutsidevisitors,too,andMichithinkstoherselfthatheissurprisinglyunhappyforsomebodywhoissoegoistical:

Page104 Bakinsatathisdeskwithhisglasseson.Hisappearance,withhisleftshoulderslumpeddown,benttowardshisdesk,gavetheimpressionofalonelyperson.Hehadrepelledhis family,repelledhisfriends,anddespitethefactthathesaidhedidn'tneedanybodyinwhomtoconfide,Michicouldnotbutthinkthatsuchsolitudemustbelonely.Evenhis goodfriend,Hanayama,hadsaidthatfatherwassteepedinhisownego.ButMichicouldonlythinkhowunhappysuchamanmustbe.10

MichidoesnotagreewithBakinonmostthings,especiallyliterature.Shefindshiswritingdidacticanddistasteful,andhefindsthebooksshereadsshallowand frivolous: BakinridiculedShunsui'sworksastrivialnovels,completegarbage.11Bakincouldnotbutobjecttothefactthatsuchworks—workswhichwerenothingmorethanpicturesof people'sshadows—weresosoughtafterbyeveryone.KyozanandTanehikowerepermissible,butthoseweakmenwithoutmoneyorpowerwhodepictednothingbutwomen fromtheworldofindolence,whopersistedinwritingcommongenrenovels!12Shunsui'smannerofproducingnovelswhichpanderedtoobsceneinterestsandthenflaunting thembeforethepublicasnovelswrittenbyamanwassomethingBakindismissedasartisanwriting.13

Bakinobviouslyfeelsthatsuchvulgarwritingisbelowtheintelligenceofamalewriter,andheisdisgustedthatamanwouldproducesuchworks.HetellsMichithat hertasteinliteratureleavesmuchtobedesired,butMichidoesnotletherfather­in­law'sopinionschangeherchoiceofreadingmaterial.Shetolerateshisbrusqueness butsheismiserablelivinginhishouseandcontemplatessuicideatonepoint.FinallyshefindsfriendshipwithoneofBakin'sdaughters,Kuwa,whoismarriedandlives awayfromhome,andthetwoofthemdiscoverthattheyenjoythesamebooksandsharemanyofthesamethoughts.14Theyarealsoequallypoorlytreatedby Bakin.WhenhefinallydiesinthelastsceneneitherMichinorKuwaexpressesgrief,althoughMichiistouchedwhenBakinbidshertositbyhissidebecauseheis lonely. Thereareaspectsof"Writing"thatdivergefromZolbrod'sbiographyofBakin:Bakin'sdiarytellsusthatSohakuwasunkindtoMichi,butFumikodepictsSohakuas akindandsupportivehusband,onewhoonhisdeathbedtellshiswifethatsheis"moreofanartist"thanherfather­in­law;andnothinginBakin'sdiariesindicatesthat Michiwasunhappyenoughtocontemplatesuicide.15However,manyofthethingsFumikowroteofarepartofestablishedfact,suchasMichi'sroleasBakin's amanuensisandthewayinwhichsherantheTakizawahouseholdafterSohaku'sdeath.ItisplainthatFumikotooklibertieswiththefactsinthisnarrative,butwhatis mostinterestingisthatintheplaceswhereshedeviatesfromrecordedhistory,sheclearlydoessoinaneffort

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toemphasizetheimportanceofMichiinBakin'slifeandthehighlevelofliteraryintelligencethatMichihad.16Inthissense,Fumikowaswritingafeministshortstory; notonlywasshewritingastory"oforpertainingtowomenandtheirqualities,"shewaswritingspecificallyaboutthequalitiesofawomanwho,Fumikomighthave likedtothink,wasslightedbyhistory.Herincentiveinwriting"Writing"wasthedesiretopromoteapositiveviewofahistoricalfemalefigure. MarriageinFumiko'sLife HayashiFumikowrotemanyworksthatdealwithmarriage;somequestionthevalidityoftheinstitutionitself,somecriticizethepracticeofarrangedmarriagesand someareaboutmarriageswhichsufferfromalossoflove.ThissubjectmattermaybeoneofthereasonswhyFumiko'swritingissooftenrelegatedtothecategoryof "women'sliterature"(marriagebeingacentralconcerntomanyJapanesewomen),butFumikodidwritesomeworksaboutmarriagethataretoldfromtheman'spoint ofviewandthatcertainlycannotbeconsidered"women'sliterature,"ifwhatwemeanbythatisliterature"oforpertainingtowomenandtheirqualities."Itwouldbe moreaccuratetosaythat,comingfromahomewheremarriagewasarathercasualrelationshipandhavinghadmanyaffairsherselfbeforeshemarried,Fumikowas interestedinexploringwhatplacemarriagehadinsocietyandcultureasawhole,notjustinthefemalehalf.17 ThemarriagethatsheherselfhadwithRokubinwasunconventionalinthatFumiko,thewife,wasthesolebreadwinnerinthefamily.Also,shetendedtodisappearfor daysatatimewithoutinformingRokubinofherwhereabouts,somethingthathefoundtryingattimes,althoughitnevercausedapermanentriftintheirrelationship.18 MarriageforFumikoseemedtobemoreofasocialobligationthananactoftheheart.ShelovedRokubin,andshemarriedhim,butthemarriageitselfwasmoreofa formalconcessiontosocietalconventionthananemotionaldedicationofherselftoherhusband.Shedidnotplaytheretiringrolethatwasnormallyexpectedofawife inthosetimes,nordidmanyofthecharactersinherfiction. Inthoseworksthatportraycharactersforcedintomarriagebytheirfamilies,orwhoarealreadymarriedbutfindthemselvesdissatisfiedwiththeirspouses,thecentral issueisthatoffreedomofchoice.Thesecharactersacceptmarriageasaworthwhileact,buttheydonotacceptbeingdeprivedoftheirrighttochoosetobemarried. Fumiko'sbeliefinfreewillmadethisaveryimportantissue;preciselybecausepeoplehavetheabilitytochoose,sheimpliesintheseworks,theyshouldnotbe

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deniedtheuseofthatfaculty.InDiaryofaVagabond,Fumikocelebratestheexerciseoffreewill,butinavarietyoflaterworksshebeginstoexplorewhathappens whenanindividualisforcedagainstthatwill.TheseworksalsorevealachangeinFumiko'sworldoutlook,achangefromayouthful,vigorous,carpediemattitudeto amoremature,sometimespessimistic,approachtolife. QuestioningtheInstitutionofMarriage ThefirstgroupofworksIwouldliketoexaminearethosethatquestionthelegitimacyofmarriageitself.Mostofthecharactersintheseworksarepressuredbyfamily andfriendstomarry,buttheycanfindlittlereasonintheirheartstodoso.Theymeditateonwhatmarriageisfor,whatsocietyexpectsofeachpartnerinmatrimony, andwhethersuchexpectationsandobligationshaveanygoodfounding.Althoughtheirfamiliesandfriendsgenerallyseemarriageasanaturalactforhumanbeings, thesecharactersstandbackandreexaminethelegitimacyofsuchanassumption. Lightningconcernsafamilyoffive:foursiblings—Nuiko,Mitsuko,Hirosuke,andKiyoko—andtheirmother,Osei.Eachchildhasadifferentfather,butonlyKiyoko isdisturbedbythisfact.Shethinksoftenonhowherfamily'sstructureispsychologicallyharmfultoitsmembers,howthesiblingssimplyhateeachother,andonthe factthatthereislittleloveinthefamily.Mitsukobecomesawidowearlyinthenovelwhenherhusband,Rohei,diesofacutepneumonia.Shemourns,butnotmuch, becausehewasnotafaithfulhusbandandhislosscannotbeconsideredagreatone.NuikoismarriedtoamannamedRyukichi;bothcharactersaregratingtypes, rarelyseeninapositivelight.Hirosukeremainssingleandleaveshisunpleasantfamilytobecomeadry­goodssellerinManchuria. Kiyokoistheheroineofthisnovel.Sheresistsherfamily'sproposalthatshemarryabakernamedTakakichi,afamilyfriend,despitethefactthateveryoneexcept Kiyokoassumesthatthematchwouldbemostconvenient.Afteropposingherarrangedbetrothaltonoavail,sheleaveshomeandmovesintoherownapartment.The apartmentisanoasisofcalmawayfromthefamily,andsinglelifemakesKiyokoahappywoman.ThepressuretomarryTakakichineverceases,butneitherdoes Kiyoko'sdeterminationnottodoso.Neartheendofthenovel,MitsukotriestoconveytoKiyokoTakakichi'ssincereinterest,butKiyokotellshersisterhowshe feelsaboutmarriagetoTakakichiinnouncertainterms: "Takakichireallyseemstoloveyou,youknow,"saidMitsukoasshetossedaroundinbed.Kiyokoremainedsilent.

Page107 "Heseemsabsolutelyintentonhavingarelationshipwithyou.He'sgotapictureofyouinhiswallet.He'sseriousaboutlovingyou,he'swholeheartedaboutthematter..." "Justthinkingaboutitisunpleasant.Reallyunpleasant..." "But,whateverelse,he'sgotgoodwork.You'resohelpless,butyoucanalwaysfallbackonhim,justlikeNuikodoeswithherhusband..." "Whatareyousaying?I'dratherspendmyentirelifeinaconventthanmarrythatsortofman.Iwouldn'tmarrysuchamanevenifIwereacripple...I'vegotalotofthingsto thinkthroughaboutmyself.Idon'tknowyetwhichroadIshouldheadouton,butIdosowanttolivemylifesplendidly.Iwonderifyouwouldn'taskPapainAzabutopayfor someschoolingforme?"19

Kiyokogoesontosaythatsheisreallynotsurewhatshewantsinlife,thatsheisverylonely,andthatnotbeingabletohavea"normal"marriage—oneinwhichthe spousesloveeachother—makesherwishshehadneverbeenborn.Shedoesnotquestionthelegitimacyofmarriageinprinciple;shethinksthatitwouldbefineifit wereamatchthatmadebothpartnershappy.Whatshedoesquestionisthesocialpressuretomarryforthesakeofbeingmarried. TheprotagonistinRiverSong,Kikuyo,isayoungwomanwhohasleftherhomeinthecountrysideandmovedtothecitywhereshehopestomakeagoodlifefor herself.Shemovesinwithaformerteacherofhers,Hisako.Hisako,likeKikuyo,isstillsingleandfindsherselflonelywithoutahusband,butshedoesnotwantto marryhersuitor,Nozu,amanshemetthroughherbrother.Oneday,whenHisakoisout,KikuyoopensHisako'sdiaryandflipsthroughthepages,readingsomeof theentries: Sunday Idon'tknowwhatIshoulddo,howIshouldlive.AgainyesterdayIfeltdizzyalldaylong.IkeepthinkingaboutthedayIwillbewithMr.Nozu.Idon'tknowwhenthatwillbe,but stillIwonderwhatsortofalooffigurehewillcut.Ireceivedahundredyen,butIhavenoneedforit.I'djustliketosendformymotherfromthecountryside,andletNobuyukiand hiswifeseethetwoofuslivingtogether.20 Ismarriagesomethingthatpeopledotomaketheirlivesdifficult?Isitsomethingtheydotolivetheirlivesincomfort?Thisisnotaneasyquestiontoanswer.21

KikuyoreflectsonhowunhappyHisakomustbe,butthereislittleshecandoforher.KikuyodoesnotshareHisako'sstrongfeelingsaboutmarriage;toKikuyo marriageismoreofacuriosity,somethingthatshewillprobablyfacelaterinlifebutnotanimpendingnecessity.LaterinthenovelKikuyohasadisturbingconversation withaco­

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worker,Fukuoka;Fukuokatellsherthatmarriageisaterriblething,andthatthetimeoneissingleisthehappiesttimeinaperson'slife: Itwastimefortheafternoonbreak.KikuyowasinvitedbyFukuokatogoforawalkalongthecanalbytheUnagamiBuilding.Thetwoofthemwalkedslowlyalongthescorching whitepavement. "You'restillsingle,soyoucan'tsympathizewithhowamarriedwomanfeels,"saidFukuokarathersuddenly,withnooutwardclueastowhatshewasthinking.Thetwoofthem worethesamepurplestripedofficeuniform,butKikuyohadayounger,fresherlookabouther.Kikuyowalkedalong,gazinglazilyatthewhitebuildingsintheafternoonsun. "Youdon'tknowhowdifficultawoman'slifecanbeuntilyou'vegottenmarried...Youmustbesohappybeingsingle,"Fukuokasaid. "Oh,youthinkso?IhaveneveroncethoughtthatIwashappy.Ifeellonely,likesomethingismissing..." "Allsinglewomenfeellikethereis'somethingmissing.'Ifeelsorryforyoungwomenborninthisdayandage.Inmyday,itwassopleasantbeingayoungmaid."22

Indeed,thesewordsfrightenKikuyoawayfromhastilymarryinganyone.Shehasafewaffairs,butnoneofthemresultinmarriage.Bytheendofthenovelsheisstill single.Thereisanairofhesitationaboutherapproachtoromanticrelationships;thewordsofHisakoandFukuokahavemadehercautious. Hisakodoeseventuallygetmarried,buttoafellowteacher,Kawajiri,nottoNozu.Herlifechangesdramaticallywhenshequitsherteachingjobtostayathome,and shefindsherselfquiteboredwhenherhusbandisconscriptedintothearmy,leavingherallalone.Shedoesnotregretherchoicetomarry,however.Neartheendof thenovelshereflectsonhowmarriagehaschangedherlife: Onceababyisborntherewillbenoreturntobeingateacher,shethought.Shehadnoself­confidenceinherabilitytoraiseachildwell.ForHisako,therewasnothingmysterious aboutmarriageandbearingchildren.Thinkingbackonitall,sherealizedthattheflurriedfeelingshehadbeforeshegotmarriedwasreallyquitedifferentfromhowshefeltnow, sinceshehadsettleddownanddevelopedaffectionforherhusband.23

ThroughHisako,Fumikotellsusthatalthoughmarriagedoesnothavetobeabadthing,itdefinitelydoeschangeone'slife.Thosechangesareominousenoughto preventKikuyofromrushingintomatrimony,althoughhercuriosityaboutmarriedlifeisconstantlybeingpiquedbythosearoundher.Fumiko'smessageinLightning andRiverSongisthesame:marriage,sheimplies,shouldbeforlove,notsocialobligation.BothKiyokoandKikuyoremainsinglesothereaderdoesnotseewhat

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marriedlifewouldactuallybringthem,butthereisanunderlyingassertioninbothworksthattheonlymorallycorrectmarriageisoneinwhichtheindividualsparticipate oftheirownfreewill. InhernovelRain,Fumikocreatesaheroinewhoalsofeelsstronglyabouttheimportanceofmarryingbychoice;shedoesso,butcontentmentisnotsoeasilysecured. Inthisnovel,Fumikogoesbeyondtheissueofchoiceandaskswhether,evenifonefreelychoosesit,theinstitutionofmarriageprovidesanybenefittoone'slife. Rainisthestoryofayoungwoman,Michiko,whocomesfromarelativelypoor,ruralfamily.Afterrejectingaprospectivesuitorchosenbyherfamily,shemarriesa manfromKyoto,Ohara,whosefamilyiswealthyandwelleducated.Mostoftheirmaritalstrifestemsfromthedifferenceintheirbackgrounds.Therelationshipgrows overtheyears,butitisnotaneasyprocessandthetwofindthatthesimpleactofmarriagedoesnotprovidemuchofaguaranteeofsecurity:thatlegalbondingdoes notprovideemotionalstability. IntheopeningchaptersofRain,Michiko'sfamilywantshertomarryaman,Shiokai,wholovesherbuttowardwhomshefeelsnoaffection.Sherefusesthematch becauseofthis,andtheincidentmakeshermeditatemoreprofoundlyonmarriage.Heroldersister(whoisphysicallydeformedduetoabadcaseofrickets)hada loveaffairyearsearlier,thoughthefamilyforcedhertobreakitoff.Michikoknowsthathersisterwastrulyinlovewithhersuitor,andshefeelsittragicthattheywere compelledtoseparate.Shewonderswhysocietycondemnslovethewayitdoes: AsMichikosatonthetatamishewasstruckbythesuddendesiretohaveaboyfriend.Itwasn'tasifshehadbeentoldbyeverybodythatshemustnotlovesomebody,itwas justthateverybodyaroundherseemedtowalkaboutwithscaryexpressionsontheirfaces,asiftheycertainlydidnotloveanybodyelse.Michikowastotallybaffledastowhy lovewasalwaysthoughtofasifitwereacrime.Sherecalledthetimewhenshewasaschoolgirlandhercrippledsisterhadbeeninlove.Hersister'sloverhadbeenanelementary schoolteacher,buttheirgrandfatherhadbeensoextremelyangryabouttheaffairthathehither.Michikohadcriedwhenshesawthat.Theteacherwentbacktohishometownin Shinshushortlyafterthat,andthenhehadbeenconscripted.Michiko'ssisterwasneverthesame;nowshewouldspendalldayshutupinherroomreadingbooksandsewing. Whywasitthatpeoplelikehersisterwereforbiddentolove?Michikorememberedwhatanextraordinarilygoodyoungmanhersister'sloverhadbeen.Andnowhewasoffatwar. BeforesheknewitMichikohadreachedtheagethathersisterhadbeenatthetime,andshebegantounderstandthebitternessthathersisterhadfeltthen.Thetatamiwerewarm andmoist.Countlessyoung

Page110 womenhadprobablysleptonthesemats.24ItmadeMichikofeeloddtothinkthatshetoowouldbesleepingonthesematstonight. ThelovethatMichikohadexperiencedsofarwaslikesomeby­productofamoralcodecreatedbypeoplewholivedindarkness,underahorrifyinglawthatforbadeonetolove another.25

Forawhile,Michikomaintainsasimplistic,unsophisticatedideaofmarriage;shethinksthathavingahappymarriageissimplyamatterofmarryingforlove,andas longassheisnotenamoredofanothershecankeepthespecterofmarriageatasafedistance,butwhenshefallsinlovewithOhara,shebecomesfrightenedbythe immediacyofmarriage.Suddenlysherealizesthatbeinginlovehasnotmiraculouslymadetheconceptofmarriagefullycomprehensibletoher.Ofitself,lovecouldnot handlethedifficultiesofdealingwithherin­laws,norcoulditprepareherforbeinguprootedandmovedtoanewcity.Indeed,Michikocomestothehorrible realizationthatmarriageisreallymoreaboutlegal,social,andeconomicbondsthanitisabouttwopeopleenjoyingeachothers'company.Ononeofthefirstnights shespendswithOhara,shewonderswhatmarriagereallymeans: Thatnight,Michikosleptadeep,dreamlesssleep.Whenshelaydownonthefloorshehadponderedtheideaofstartingoutonanewlifetogether—thesewerenovelthoughts shehadneverhadbefore.Justwhatwasthisthingcalled"marriage"?Twoyoungfriendsfallinloveandhaveafamily—thissortofmarriagemadeMichikoalittleuneasy.26

Itmakesheruneasybecauseitishappeningsofast,andsheisnotsureitiswhatshewants.Michikoisrighttobesuspicious,ashermarriagetoOharaturnsoutto haveitsshareofdifficulties.MostofthesearebroughtaboutbyOhara'sfamily,whoeventuallyrequestthathemovebackhometoKyoto.Thefamilialobligationsare whatMichikofindsthemosttryingandneartheendofthenovelshewishesthatshecouldgooffonherowntoaplacewhereshecouldwork.27Forher,marriage hasverylittletodowithheremotionalbondtoherhusband;thatissomethingthatwouldprobablyexistwhetherornotthetwowereofficiallywed.Michiko'smarriage isprimarilyabondtoherin­laws,abondofsocialobligationsimilartothesocialobligationofanarrangedmarriageasdepictedinLightningandRiverSong. AFamilyofWomenisastoryaboutafamilyoffourwomen:themother,Yukie,andherthreedaughters,Tokiko,Ruiko,andHideko.Yukiewouldliketoseeher daughtersmarried,butnoneofthemwanttobepushedinthatdirection.Themoststrong­mindedofthemallisRuiko,whowalksoutofanarrangedmarriagemeeting inordertobewithherloverOtsubo,whomshelaterleavesbecauseheismarriedwith

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children.Hidekoisthemostemotionallyimmatureofthesisters.ShebecomesromanticallyinvolvedwithamannamedSekiandthinksaboutmarryinghim,butbythe endofthenovelstillhasnotdoneso.28Tokikoisawarwidowwhowouldreallyratherfreeherselfofallfamilyobligations,includingcaringforYukieinheroldage. ThefeelingsthatHidekoandRuikohaveaboutmarriageandfamilyobligationsaresummedupinadialoguebetweenthetwointhefinalsceneofthenovel: "IfyougetmarriedtoSeki,youshouldcometoAtami,"saidRuikocoldly. "Idon'tknowyetifwe'llbeabletogetmarried.IthinkthatIreallyshouldbetakingcareofMother.Tokikoreallyhasnointentionoflivingwithmother...she'sjustlikethat." "Butthere'sreallynopointinyougivingupontheideaofmarriagetoSekiforMother'ssake.I'lllookafterhersomehow.She'sstillyoung—thetwoofuscandosomesortof work.Tokikojustwantsherfreedom.Shethinksonlyofherself,she'sthetypethatcan'tleaveothersalone,andIcan'tlivewithher.MotherandIcanlookafterReiko,andifIend uphavingchildrenI'lljustworkmyhardest.29IlearnedaboutrelationshipsthehardwaywithOtsubo,andIdon'tintendtofallintothatrutagain.Youshouldgowhereyou belong,Hideko,toSeki'sside..." "Yes,but,gettingmarried?Idon'tknowifthatwillmakemehappyornot...Dowomenultimatelyfindhappinesswhentheymarry?I'mnotsure.Ismarriagereallysomethingto whichwomenjustescape?" "Oh!Ifthat'showyoufeel,thendon'tgetmarried.Whatkindofhappinesscanwomenfind,doyouthink?" "Ithinktheycanfindplentyeveniftheyaresingle."30

Ruikohasdismissedmarriageasanoptionforherself,butshethinksthatmarriedlifewouldbefineforhersister;shedoesnotequateherfailedaffairwithOtsubowith Hideko'srelationshipwithSeki.ButHideko,despiteherrelativenaiveté,wonderswhethermarriagewouldbringherhappiness.Ruikothinks,asshewatchesHideko sleepinglater,thatHidekoisatthepointoflifewhenwomenaretheirhappiest.Shewishesthatshecouldreturntothatpointinherlife—presumablythetimebefore shehadeverbecomeinvolvedwithaman. Alltheseworks,Lightning,RiverSong,Rain,andAFamilyofWomenquestiontherationaleofmarriageoutofobligation—marriageformarriage'ssake.Fumiko stopsshortofadeepdiscussionofwhysuchobligationsexist,whichisinkeepingwithhertendencytoavoidphilosophicaltopics,butitisclearthatalltheprotagonists inthesenovelsfacethesamebasicquestion:Whyshouldonemarry?Isitsolelyadutywhichoneisexpectedtoperform?Doesitnecessarilycarrywithittheburden offamilialobligations?31KiyokoandKikuyorejecttheinstitu­

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tionofmarriageentirely,findingnogoodinit.Michikofinallyacceptsit,onlytodiscoverthatisitnotwhatshehadhoped,andRuikoresignsherselftotheconclusion thatmarriageisaninevitablebutundesirableeventinawoman'slife.InthesefournovelswecanseethedevelopmentofFumiko'sphilosophyofmarriage,thegistof which,itwouldseem,isthatmarriageismostadvantageousforthefamiliesofthosegettingmarried,andtheonlyoption—ifoneistoavoidsuchtangledfamilial obligations—istoremainsingle.ItisinterestingthatFumikoneverwroteaboutamarriagesuchasherown,whichbyallaccountsworkedwellandgavebothspouses considerablefreedomfromtraditionalduties. TheImportanceofFreedomofChoice Kiyoko(Lightning),Michiko(Rain),andRuiko(AFamilyofWomen)allfleefromarrangedmarriages.Noneofthesenovelsaddressclearlywhysuchamarriageis supposedtobeundesirable—thereisanassumptionthatthereaderwillunderstandimplicitly—butthenovelAwarehitozuma(PitifulWife,1950)ismorespecific. Theprotagonist,WatariKeiko,isayoung,singlewomanwhoatthebeginningofthenovelhearsplentyfromhermarriedfriendsabouthowterriblemarriedlifecan be.Onefriendismiserablewithherhusband,butfeelsshecannotleavehimforthesakeofherchildren.Theother,Keiko'ssister­in­lawYoriko,hasnochildren,but stillfindsitimpossibletoabandonhermarriage.BothwomenwarnKeikoabouthowhorriblemarriageis,andKeikofeelssorryforthem.Theirwarningsemphasizeto Keikothepotentialfordisasterinamarriage,andwhileshecannotguaranteeherselfafuturelifeofmarriedbliss,shedoesrecognizethatthereisatleastonethingshe candotoavoidunhappiness:shecanchooseherownspouse. Keikoworksinanofficeandbecomesenamoredofamanwhoworksthere,Tomoda.HeisarathersloppymanbutKeikofindshishaphazardmannersendearing andattractivebecauseheisnotlikealltheothersintheoffice.KeikoandTomodabecomefriendsandtheirromancebegins.UnfortunatelyforKeiko,herfamilyhasin themeantimebeenmakingarrangementsforhertomarryamanwhomshehasnevermet,Tokunori.Shefindsoutabouttheirplansandtriestoresist,butthefamilyis determined.TheygosofarastoofferTomodamoneytoleaveKeiko;TomodarefusesthemoneyandthentellsKeikowhatherfamilyhasdone.Keikoisforcedby herfamilytomovebackhome,andforbiddentoseeTomodaanymore. Theclimacticsceneisoneinwhichthefamilymembersairtheiropinionsabouttheentireaffair,andwhileitisratherlengthyitmerits

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beingquotedinfull.ThecharactersincludeEtsujiandNoboru(botholderbrothersofKeiko),Etsuji'swifeYoriko,andTaeko,Keiko'smother: InthesittingroomwereEtsuji,Yoriko,Noboru,andMr.andMrs.Sakai,in­lawsofTaeko'sfromChofu.Mr.SakaiwasthepersonwhohadbroughttheweddingproposalfromMr. Tokunori.Byprofessionhewasadentist,buthewascrazyaboutelectionsandwhenWatariEtsujiwasrunningasacandidate,Mr.SakaihadbecomeinvaluabletotheWatari family—theycouldn'thavegottenalongwithouthim. Withthefeelingthatshehadenteredanenemycamp,KeikowentandsatdownbesideNoboru. Atfirsttheconversationwasharmlesschitchat,butitnaturallyturnedtothematterofKeiko'smarriage.EtsujiwasangrywithKeikoandactedasifhewantedtobreakoffrelations withher.HeturnedtowardTaekoandpurposelydidnotlookinKeiko'sdirection. Yorikowasthefirsttospeak.''We'vediscussedKeiko'smatteramongusbefore,butIthoughtitwouldbebesttomeetwithherandgiveitfurtherseriousconsideration,soIasked mothertocallherheretoday..." "Mr.Sakai'sfatherhasalreadymadeallthearrangementsforthemeeting,andwouldliketoknowhowtoproceedfromhere.So,Keiko,we'vedecidedthatwe'dliketoyoutosave Mr.SakaiembarrassmentbygoingtomeetMr.Tokunori..." Noboruwasgazingoutatthegarden.Keikoturnedtofacehisprofileandpleaded,"ButIdon'tthinkthatI'llhaveanyinterestinMr.TokunorievenifIdomeethim.Iunderstand yourconcern,butIdon'twanttomeetMr.Tokunori,andI'mgoingaheadwithmyplanswithMr.Tomoda." "Oh?Withwhosepermission?"Etsujiaskedangrily. Keikowassilentforamoment,butthensheburstforthinafloodofangrywords."Iamanadult.IthoughtIcouldgetmarriedwithoutanybody'spermission..." "Oh,Isee.Didthatmanputthisideaintoyourhead?Thatmaybethelaw,butyouareamemberoftheWatarihousehold.Youcannotbehavelikeastraycat,pickingand choosingwhatyouwant!" "ButIthoughtthatbecauseIwasamemberoftheWatarihousehold,Iwouldnotlosemyhumanityandbeforcedtogotoaplacethatdoesnotpleasemeforthesakeofthe family." "Hmm...Youcertainlyarenotspeakinginaveryladylikemanner.Whatdoyouthink,Mr.Sakai?LikeIwassaying,thereisnohopeforthiswoman,sothoughI'msorrytoaskitof you,wouldyoubesokindastocutoffnegotiationswithMr.Tokunori?Formypart,Ihavenointentionofrecognizingthisautonomousmarriage." Sakaismiledandsaid,"Well,Ihaveabitofaproblemwiththat.Ithinkthingsarebeingsaidratherrashlyhere.Afterwe'vefinishedeat­

Page114 ingI'dliketogotothenextroomanddiscussthisthoroughlywithKeiko..." "Letmerepeatmyself.Myfeelingsstandonthismatter,whetherornotIgotothenextroomforatalkwithSakai..."BeforeKeikofinishedspeaking,Etsujithrusthishandoutin angerandstruckheracrosstheface. "Whomadeyouqueen?!Howdareyoutalkbacklikethat!Giveathoughttothefactthatweareallopposedtoyourideas.Doyouhaveanyideahowtreacherousthosethoughts ofyoursare?" "No.NoborusaiditwasOK!" "Noboru?Noboruisopposed,too!" "NoboruistheonlyonewhounderstandshowIfeel." "Noboruwishedthattheconversationwouldproceedasamicablyaspossible,butthingshadgottenoutofhandandatthismostimportantjuncturehewasthefocusof everybody'sattention.HeturnedtoEtsuji. "It'slikeKeikosays.Wouldn'tweallbesatisfiedaslongasKeikoishappy?OfcourseMr.Tokunorihasgonetoalotoftrouble,andKeikoshouldbethankfultoMr.Sakaiforhis kindservices,butIthinkitwouldbebestifweletKeikodoassheseesfit." "WhowilltakeresponsibilityifKeikoendsupunhappy?!" "Keikoherself,ofcourse.Thatisnotaresponsibilityforotherstobear.Whenmenandwomengetmarried,theydosoontheirown,don'tthey?Theywouldbestupidtohold theirrelativesforeverresponsiblefortheirownunhappiness." Etsujiwasfuriousandstormedofftohisownroom.Yorikolookedpaleandsaid,"Noborusaysthatawomanshouldfindherhappinessinthewaysheseesfit,butI'mawoman andIdon'tagree.We'reallangrybecausewecareforKeiko.Shouldn'twebegratefulthatsomeoneisproposingmarriage?" "Thatmaymakethefamilyhappy,butforKeikoitisarealpredicament.Thefamilyjustgangsupandwelcomestheidea." "GoodHeavens!Whataterriblethingtosay!DoyouthinkitwouldbegoodforKeikotosufferbybeingmarriedofftoanobviouslyimpoverishedman?" NoboruglaredindignantlyatYoriko."Keikoisstillyoung.Don'tyouthinkshecanstandalittlehardship?Theonlyonewho'snotsufferinginthiswholethingisyou.Allofus aresuffering,youknow.Loveshouldn'tbeamatterofsufferingornotsuffering;itshouldbethewarmthfeltbytwolonelypeoplewhofindeachotheraftersearchingtheworld over.Thetwoofthemloveeachother—whoarewetogangupagainstthemwiththisandthatobjection?I'mtalkingtoyou,too,Mother.Don'tthinkabouttheindebtednessthat Keikoissupposedtohavetowardthewomanwhoraisedher.Historyhasrepeatedtheparent/childcycleforthousandsofyears.Whenchildrenaregrown,theyleavethenest. Justgivethematterarest." Taekolookedlikeshewasonthevergeoftears.Withashaky,

Page115 restrainedvoiceshesaid,"Now,waitaminute.Thisisn'tlikeyou...DiscussionofKeiko'smarriageshouldnotinvolvefilialobligation.Nomatterwhatyousay,Keikoisstilla childandsheknowslittleoftheworld.ThisfellowTomodawantedtomeetme,butIwouldn'tagreetoit.I'mnotsayinganythinginparticularaboutthisMr.Tomoda,butIwant mydaughtertobeplacedsafelyinthehandsofamanclosetome.Keikomaybeanadult,butIdon'tthinkthatsheisaswiseadaughterasNoborusays.Sheisstillselfishand wilful,whichmakesmethinkthatsheisstillachild—refusingtalkofmarriagetoMr.Tokunoriandall.It'sperfectlynaturalthatparentsshouldbeconcernedabouttheirdaughter's happiness.Idon'tknowhowtheydothingsintheWest,butsurelysincetimeimmemorialparentshavebeenconcernedwiththeirchildren'shappiness. "Inanycase,I'dlikeKeikotostaywithmeforthetimebeing.I'dlikehertoquitherjob.Sheknowsnothingatallaboutbeingahousewife,soforthenextyearsheshalllearnhow tosewandhowtocook.If,afterallthat,shestillhasdifficultywiththeideaofmarryingMr.Tokunori,thenIthinkitwouldbebesttoletherdoasshepleases.Won'tyouagreeto this,Mr.Sakai,andgiveusalittletime?ThisshouldbejustfinewithEtsuji,too.IwillnotallowKeikotodojustexactlyasshepleases.Thatismyparentalduty.Nobodyshould disagreewithmeonthis." Keikothoughtthecoursetheconversationwastakingquiteanoddturn."What?There'snowayI'mquittingmyjob.IfIspendayearlearninghowtosewandcookthatmeans thatEtsujiwillhavetosupportmeagain.IwishyouallwouldjustnotconsidermepartoftheWatarifamilyanymore.Motherandtherestofyouwillthankmesomedayforthis.I willmakeituptoyousomehow." YorikohadofferedlunchtoNoboru,buthesaidhehadbusinesstoattendtoandwentonhiswayafterstatinghisopinion.ThesushiarrivedandKeikopassedoutplatesand chopstickstoeveryone,althoughsheherselfhadnottheslightestappetite. AsSakaisavoredhisbeerhesaid,"Well,whatdemandingtalk!It'sbestforKeikotobebyhermother'ssideforthetimebeing.Youknow,Keiko,societydoesn'tcatertopeople's selfishness.Youcan'tgetalonginthisworldbytryingtoprancearoundthedemandsofdutyandhumanity.You'vegottohavethespiritofcooperation.You'vegotto understandhowyourmotherfeels,havingraisedyouallthistime.NoboruisNoboru.Firstofall,that'sjustthesortofthingmensay.Whenhehasadaughterofhisownhewill rememberthisdayandbeembarrassed.'It'snothingspecialthatparentsraisechildren.'Ha!Whatdubiousnotionsthoseare!Idon'tagreewiththosewordsatall.ThisisJapan.It isnotAmericaortheSovietUnion."32

ThisfamilymeetingmakesKeikodesperate,andsoshearrangeswithTomodatoescapetoAtami(aseasideresort)forafewdays.Theysucceedindoingso, althoughtheycannottrulyescapethesituationin

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whichKeikohasbeenplacedbyherfamily.Aftertheyreturnhome,Keiko'smarriagetoTomodaisfinallyagreedupon,ontheconditionthatKeikoquitherjobafter gettingmarried. ThemarriageisnottheislandofblissthatKeikohadimagined;Tomodastaysoutlateatnightandcomeshomedrunk.Keikoislonelyintheemptyhouseandtries workingasatypisttokeepherselfoccupied,butthejobdoesnotinteresther.Neartheendofthestory,sheispregnantandfacesthesortofbored,trappedexistence asahousewifethatherfriendshadwarnedheraboutinthebeginningofthenovel. ForKeiko'sfamily,thatayoungpersonwouldwanttochoosehisorherspouseisaminorconsideration;theyfeelanoverridingresponsibilityforherthatincludes assuringamateriallycomfortablefuture.Keikohasseenandheardenoughaboutunhappymarriagestothinkthattakingherchanceswithastrangerisabsurd.The righttochoose(inthiscase,herownhusband)isveryimportanttoher,somethingthatremindsthereaderofthegeneralmoodofDiaryofaVagabond.Inboth novelstheimportanceoffreedomofchoiceiscentraltothenarrative.Freechoicedoesnotnecessarilybringhappiness,butthatdoesnotreduceitsimportance.When KeikolaterbecomesunhappywithTomoda,sheknowsthatshehasnoonebutherselftoblame.Althoughtherearesceneswhereshebreaksdownintearsbecause ofagivendifficulty,therearenoscenesinwhichsheindulgesinself­pity. TherearetwoshortstoriesthatFumikowroteaboutarrangedmarriagefromtheman'spointofview,"Hananoichi"(AFlower'sPlace,1937)and "Maihime"(DancingGirl,1940).Inbothstories,theman'sfamilydecidesitistimeforhimtomarryandpresentshimwiththeirdecisionratherabruptly.Inbothstories, theprotagonistismainlyconcernednotwiththeactofmarriageassuch,butratherwithbeinggiventhechancetochooseitofhisownfreewill. "AFlower'sPlace"isaboutayoungman,KoyanoShuichi,whoistheeldestsoninhisfamily.Hismotherdiedwhenhewasyoungandhenowliveswithhisfather, Kohei,stepmother,Tamiko,andyoungestbrother,Kozo,whoisstillinhisteens.Themiddlebrother,Kuniji,droppedoutofcollegetogotoEuropeandstudy textiles.KunijireturnsfromEuropeandshockshisfamilybytakingalover.Theydonotapprove,butKunijiisdeterminedtolivehislifehisownwayandsothereis nothingthatthefamilycando.Shuichiwatcheshisbrother'sactionswithenvy.Hewisheshecouldbesofree,butbeingtheeldestsonofthefamilyputsanextra burdenonhimandheknowsthathisparents'expectationsarehigh.Hisreactiontothisfamilypressureissocialwithdrawal;wearetoldthatwhenhegraduatedfrom lawschoolhedidnotlookforwork,andattheopeningofthenarrativeheisspendingmostofhistimecoopedupinhisstudyathome,translatingeconomicstexts.

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Thefamilyhasamaid,Miyako,withwhomShuichibeginsanaffair.Miyakoisterrifiedofbeingfoundoutbythefamily,butShuichiassuresherthatheintendsto marryher.Sheknowsinherheartthatthefamilywillneverallowthis,butshecannotbringherselftosaythattoShuichi.WhenShuichi'sfamilyarrangesamarriagefor himtoawomanfromKyotonamedKawauchiSumie,hegathersallhiscourageandtellshisstepmotherabouthisloveforMiyako.Tamikotellshimthatshewillnot standforit,andthatastheeldestsonofthefamilyhehasresponsibilitiesthatKunijidoesnothave.WhenShuichisaysthathewantstorelinquishthoseresponsibilities toKozo,Tamikotellshimthatwouldnotbeacceptableeither: "Well,inanycase,ifyouwanttodomeafavor,thenleavethismatteraboutMiyakouptome.Youaretooyoungtobetalkingaboutresponsibility.Miyakocouldendupbeinga realburdenontheKoyanofamily,andbesidesyouaretheeldestson..." "WellIwasthinkingthatifthismatterdoesn'tworkitselfout,KozocouldcarryonthefamilylineandMiyakoandIcouldstartourownhousehold." Tamikowasdistraught,andtearsrolleddownhersaggycheeks."No,Iwon'tstandforit.I'mgoingtoliveaproperlife.Nomatterwhathappens,Kozoistheyoungest,andontop ofthathe'smine.33Iwon'tstandbeingscrutinizedbyallsortsofpeople.Andthefactthatit'sMiyakomakesitalltheworse...Oh,ifpeoplethoughtthatIdidthisonpurposeto thepreciouseldestson,why..." Shuichidisdainedhisstepmother'sconcernaboutsuchshallowissues.Hethought,"Justlikeawoman—she'sgotitallworkedout."Inhisheart,hethoughtabouttakingMiyako andleavinghome.Ifhelefthome,hewouldbelivingforthemoment,anditwouldn'tbemiserableifhewerewithher.34

ThefamilyabsolutelyrefusestoallowShuichitomarryMiyako.Theydiscreetlysendheraway,andShuichihasnowayoffindingher.Thefamilyproceedswith preparationsforShuichi'smarriagetoSumie.Bytheendofthestory,ShuichihasheardfromMiyako(whoisstayingwithherfamilyinthecountryside);hesuspects thatsheispregnantwiththeirchild,butthatsheisafraidtotellhim.Inthefinalscene,hecriesoutinsorrowjustasSumie,towhomheisnowmarried,comesintohis study. Shuichiisdeniedtherighttochoosehiswife,andthedenialmakeshimmiserable.Heyearnsforhisbrother'sfreedom;notfortheopportunitytogoabroad(hesays hehasnointerestindoingso),butrathertheopportunitytobeabletochoosewheretogoandwhattodo.Thethingwhichpreventshimfromdoingsoissocial convention,whichisjustwhatpressuresthewomeninLightning,RiverSong,Rain,AFam­

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ilyofWomen,andPitifulWifetomarry.Eachofthesecharactersknowsthatthefreedomtochooseismoreimportanttothemthansocialacceptance,andthat failurewouldbetolerableifitwereoftheirownmaking. "DancingGirl"hasasimilarthemebutonemaindifference:inthestoriesdiscussedabove,theprotagonistsallhavesomeother,concretegoaltowardwhichtheystrive. Itmightbepossibletosaythattheyrejectsocialpressuretomarrybecausethereisanother,moretemptingoptioncloseathand,andnotbecausetherighttochooseis fundamentallyimportanttothem.Buttheprotagonistin"DancingGirl,"Suekichi,doesnothavesuchatemptingsecondoption;hedoesnotloveanother,nordoeshe particularlywanttopursuesomeothergoal. Suekichiisanonlychildandlivesathomewithhisfatherandstepmother.HewasworkinginTaiwanasanapprenticeonasugarplantationuntilhecontractedmalaria andreturnedtoJapantoconvalesce.Heisofmarryingage,buthasnotgiventhemattermuchthought,beingaratherretiringsort.Thestoryopensasheiswatching thefoursistersfromtheNishiofamily(wholivenextdoortohim)practicingadanceintheirgarden.Thevivacityoftheyoungwomenstrikeshim,especiallythatofthe tallest. Suekichi'sfathercallshimforatalkonedayandshowshimaphotographofayoungwomannamedUmeko.HesaysthatSuekichi'sstepmotherhassuggested marriagebetweenthetwo(Umekoisarelativeofhers)andheasksSuekichiwhathethinksofUmeko.Suekichitakesaglanceatthephoto,buttellshisfatherthathe doesnothavethemindtomarryjustthen.Hisstepmotherisdisappointed,butdoesnotgiveuphopeofarrangingherstepson'smarriage. OneeveningSuekichigoesoutforawalkandwhenhereturnstohisneighborhood,hemeetsthetalldaughterfromnextdoor.Shehascomehomelatefromthe moviesandcannotgetintothelockedgateatherhouse.Herdeterminedairandpragmaticdemeanor—shethinksnothingofhoppingoverthewall—shakeSuekichi fromhisplacidityashebeginstorealizethathehasbeentootimidinlifeandthereismuchintheworldforhimtodiscover: WhenheapproachedthedarkearthenwalloftheNishios'house,hesawthedarksilhouetteofsomebodyclimbingoverthewall.Suekichiwasstartledandstrainedhiseyesinthe starlight,staringthroughthedarknessatthefigureonthewall. "Who'sthere?"Suekichisaidinalow,sternvoice.Thefigure,whohadbothhandsonthewall,wasstartledbySuekichi'svoiceandnimblysteppeddowntotheground.Whenhe drewclose,SuekichirealizedthatitwastheyoungdaughteroftheNishiofamilywhohadgreetedhimsokindlyearlier.

Page119 "Thegate'salreadyshutforthenight,"shesaid,shrugginghershouldersawkwardly. "Areyoubyyourself?" "Uhhuh.GrandmayelledatmesoIdecidedtogetoutofthehouseforawhile.IwenttothemoviesandnowI'mhomelate..." Shewastheyoungwomanwhohaddancedlikeadyingswanattheedgeofthepond. "Don'tyouhaveadoorbellatthegate?" "Uhhuh,butithasbeenbrokenforeversolongandstilldoesn'twork."Herprofilewasfaint,andresembledawaterlily. TheyhadnotelephoneintheNishiohouse,anditdidnotseemthatonewouldbeabletohearknockingatthegatefromthedistantmainhouse. "Aren'tyouMr.Nishio'sdaughter?" "Uhhuh,althoughthisisgrandmother'shouse.It'safamilyofgoodpeople,exceptforme.I'mselfishandsometimesIcanbesodifficult."Theyoungwomanshruggedher shoulders,stuckhertongueoutandsmiled. Suekichibentoveratthebaseofthewallandsaid,"Well,justclimbonmybackandgetoverthiswall!"ShetookoffhershoesandclimbeduponSuekichi'sback,upandoverthe wall.Therewasasmallthumpingnoiseasshejumpeddownintothegarden.Suekichipausedandlistened."Thankyou.Goodbye,"saidasmall,charmingvoice. Thatnight,Suekichijustcouldn'tgettosleep.Hecouldstillfeelthesoftweightofthewoman'sbodypenetratinghisbones.AnowlhootedinthetreesoftheSuizentemple. Suekichiwonderedwhethershe,too,waslisteningtothatowl.Thesmellofdeadleaveshadpermeatedhisnosewhenhehadstoopeddownwithbothhandsagainstthewall.His necktiehadswungbeneathhischin.Theairhadbeenfulloflateautumn,andoccasionallyaninsectwouldsingout.Suekichiopenedthecurtain,slowlyinchedopentheglass doorandtherainshutter,andstaredoutatthedarkgardennextdoor.35

Lateron,theyoungwomantellsSuekichithatsheisleavinghometogotostudydanceinTokyo.Suekichi'sstepmotherinvitesUmekotocomeandstaywiththe family,andSuekichiknowsthatitisonlyamatteroftimebeforethetwowillbemarrieddespitethefactthathedoesnotreallywantit.Inthefinalscene,whileUmeko ispeelingapersimmonforhim,heimagineshowhappytheyoungwomanfromnext­doorwillbeinTokyowhenhertalentsasadancerarerecognized.The symbolisminthissceneinvolvesgoldfishinthepondsbehindthehouse: Suekichiwenttowardthewindowsandopenedtheglassdoor.Hecouldseethegardennextdoor.Apuppywaslazilypokingaboutinthesunoftheexpansiveyard.The cockscombandsagebloomedinalltheirglory,likecandlesputoutondisplay. Umekosilentlystartedpeelingthepersimmons.

Page120 Suekichigazedattheautumnlandscapenextdoorwithastrangefeelingofsubmission. "AmIrightinthinkingthatyouareangryatmeforcominghere?"askedUmeko,asifshehadsuddenlyrememberedsomething."Yourstepmothersaysthattheceremonywillbe inearlyDecember..." ItwasthefirstSuekichihadheardoftheplantohavetheweddinginearlyDecember.Hewasangryathisstepmother,forshehadtoknowthathehimselffeltuneasyaboutthis marriage."IstillhavemilitarydutyImustdo.Wecan'ttalkabouttheceremonyjustyet..."hesaidbrusquely,stillwithhisfacetowardsthegarden. "Yes,Iknow."TearspoureddownUmeko'sfaceasshepeeledthepersimmon.Thetearshitherbosomandspilledontoherlap,butshemadenomovetowipethemawayasshe linedupthepeeledpiecesofpersimmononaplateandpiercedthemwithasmallfork. SuekichileftUmekotherecryingandwenttothesideofthefishpondsoutback.Herolledbackthereedscreenwhichcoveredapond,andtherebeneathitwerethreeorfourarch­ shapedgoldfishlazilyswimmingaboutinthewater.36 TheimageoftheyoungwomanhehadleftinUnzenfloatedupbeforehiseyesfromthebottomofthepond.37ShewasheadedfordanceschoolinTokyo,andwouldwaitforthe daywhen,likethegoldfish,shewouldbechosen.Howhappythatyoungwomanmustbewhensheisdancingsoskillfully...Hewalkedaround,lookingateachpond.Inevery singleone,therewasagoldfish—somepatterned,somecrimson,somesilver—swimmingaboutlazilyasifitweretheverybestfishinallofJapan. SuddenlySuekichirememberedUmeko,cryingasshepeeledthepersimmons,anditmadehimfeeladistinctsadnessinthebottomofhisheart.Howshamefulitwouldbeforhim, asaman,toendupmarryingherandcaringforher...Suekichithoughthe'dliketobringheralongandshowherthebeautiful,splendidpondsandtheirgoldfish.38

SuekichifeelspityforUmeko,buthehasnointentionofshowingthatpitybyagreeingtomarryher.Tohimthatwouldbe"shameful,"notbecausehewouldbetray somesortofmasculinehonor,butratherbecausehewouldbesellinghimselfshortbyrelinquishinghisrighttochoosehisfutureand,hefears,robbingUmekoofthe sameright.Consequently,hisresponsetoUmeko'stearsisnotguilt,norisitsurrendertohisfamily'sdemandstomarry;itistoshowherthegoldfishthatsymbolize independenceanddetermination.Hewantstosharetheemotionthatdriveshim,notgiveitup.ThelastpageofthisstorydepictsthesuddentransformationofSuekichi fromafatalisticmantoamanwhorealizesheisthemasterofhisdestiny.Therealizationpromisestotakehimawayfromhishorridexistence,closedupinhishouse, andcatapulthimtowardavastrealmofpossibilities.

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Whatisoddisthat,despitethealmostoverwhelmingfeelingofcatharsisSuekichiexperienceswhenhedecidestotakechargeofhislife,wearenevertoldwhatitis thathewantstodo.FumikosimplyisnotconcernedwithtellingthereaderwhatSuekichi'sfutureaspirationsmightbe.Suchdetailsareirrelevant;whatisimportantis thattheherounderstandsheiscapableofaiminghislife,ofmakingchoices.LikethenarratorofDiaryofaVagabondandmanyotherofFumiko'sprotagonists, Suekichiexperienceslifeinaimmediatemanner,rarelydealingwiththepastorthefuturebutratherfocusingonthepresent,andwithinthepresenthisattentionisgiven mostlytoemotions.Thiscentralityofimmediateemotionsshouldbefamiliartothereader;wehaveseenitinDiaryofaVagabond(whereitismostoftenexpressed asanonspecificdesireto"dosomething")andthetravelogues(whereitiscenteredonfeelinglonelinessornostalgia).ItisasifFumikowearsconceptualblinders;she doesnotwanttosee(muchlessexplore)anythingbeyondherimmediatesurroundings.Withinthosesurroundingswhatismostimportantisthatshe(orher protagonists)beenvelopedinemotion—beitdesire,loneliness,orwhatever—sooverwhelmingthatallelseisobliterated. NeartheendofherlifeFumikosuddenlychanged;intheworksdiscussedinthenextsectionandinotherworks,suchasDriftingClouds,hercharacterswere dramaticallymoremature.Nolongerweretheyheadstrong,moodyindividualsoblivioustoeverythingbutthefeelingofthemoment.Nowtheyoccasionallyreflected onthepast,andtheywereabletokeeptheirwillinchecklongenoughatleasttoattemptcooperationwithothers. MarriagesGoneSour Fumikoalsowrotemanystoriesaboutthehusband­wiferelationshiponceamarriagehassoured.Givenherpenchantfordepictingbothphysicalandpsychological violence,itissurprisingthatshedoesnotincludemuchofeitherinthesestories.Instead,shetendstoportraybothpartnersasdecent,sensitivepeoplewhowould simplyrathernotbemarriedanylonger.TensionlikethatintherelationshipbetweenJuichiandMinekoinBrownEyesispresenttoacertaindegree,butitdoesnot escalateintoferociousconfrontations.ItisinthesestoriesthatFumiko'scharacterdevelopmentisatitsmostsubtle;thehesitationandmatureconcernsofeachspouse revealtheirpersonalitiesjustasclearlyasharshspeechwould,butwithouttheunpleasant,sometimesartless,violenceoftheearlierworks. Themajorityofworksofthistypewerewrittenneartheendof

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Fumiko'slife.Twoexamplesare"Koyanoniji"(RainbowsintheWasteland,1948)and"Ukisu"(FloatingGrassplot,1951).Bothworksareaboutmarriagesthathave deterioratedovertime;inneitherstorydoesanyparticularactcausediscord,butratheralongchainofsmalleventsculminatesinasituationthatbecomesunbearable forbothspouses. "RainbowsintheWasteland"isaboutacouple,TatsuoandHaruko,whoweremarriedameresixmonthsbeforeTatsuowascalledawayformilitaryduty.Thisabrupt separationwasdifficultforbothofthem,andbythetimeTatsuoreturnshomesixyearslater,thetwocannotsimplypickupwheretheyleftoff.WhileTatsuowas stationedinIndonesiahehadanaffairwithaJapanesebargirl,Hisako.HeneverintendedtocontinuetheaffairinJapan,butoncehome,hecannotforgethislover, especiallywhenafriendtellshimthatshe,Hisako,isbackinJapan,married,andwithachild. Harukohadabriefencounterwithamanduringherhusband'sabsence,butsheisnotactivelyinvolvedwithhimwhenTatsuoreturns.Still,shehasbeenlivingonher ownforsolongthatmarriedlifehasnoappealtoheranymoreandshefeelsthatTatsuohasbecomeatotallydifferentpersonfromthemanshemarried.Onenight,he overhearshertalkinginhersleep: I'dliketotalktoyouabouthowIfeel.Idon'tthinkeitheroneofusistoblame,butcomingthroughthiswarhasmadeourrelationshipseemfragilesomehow,andIcan'thelpbut feelhowstrangeitallis.Ijusthungon,thinkingthatifonlyyouwouldcomebacktheneverythingwouldbesettled,butit'sbeentoolongandthatintensefeelinghasdied.What kindofbeastiswar?TheremustbeplentyofcoupleswhoareatoddswitheachotherbecauseofmixedthoughtslikethoseI'mhaving...AlthoughIhaven'tgivenmyheartto someotherwhomIlikemorethanyou,Ijustdon'thavethewild,deepdesirethatIhadwhenyouwerecalledintoservice.Iusedtodreamaboutsearchingyououtamongallthe conscriptsandbringingyouhome...Butsixyearshavepassedsincethen,haven'tthey?Allthatisgonenow.Mylovehasfaded,andonthedaywhenyoufirstcamebackIhad anoddfeeling,likeIwantedtogoandhidemyselfsomewhere.Bothphysicallyandspiritually,it'sallfornaught...Suchalongtimeawayfromeachotherputsusinsuchafix. Afterbeingseparatedfromyouattheageoftwenty­four,Iwastedthenextsixyearsofmylife.Aftercomingbackyousaidthatthiswasnotthemotherlandyouhaddreamedof whileyouwereaway—isittruethatthemenwhowenttowarandthewomenwhostayedhomehaveallchanged?Itmaysoundstrange,butsleepingwithyouhasbecomepainful forme...Imyselfdon'tunderstandwhyIfeelthisway.Whenyouaren'thereIcanvisionyouinmymind,butIcanonlyseeyouwhenyouwereyoung,intheolddays.

Page123 You'redifferentnow.Idon'tfeelatalllikeI'mwithmyhusband.IfeellikeI'msleepingwithsometotallydifferentperson.Whatshouldwedo?Imustseemlikeatotallydifferent womantoyou...It'sbeenthreemonthssinceyoucameback.I'vedonealotofthinkingaboutthissix­year,empty,hopelessmarriage.Butnothingcomesofit,soIthoughtI'dask youtogiveitsomethought,too...39

ThisisnoteasyforTatsuotohear,butHarukoisnotsayinganythingthathedoesnotalreadyknowinhisheart. NeitherTatsuonorHarukoharboranyanimositytowardtheotherbecausetheyknowthatthereisnoonetoblamefortheunfortunatecircumstanceinwhichtheyfind themselves.Theyalsoknowthatthereisnorealisticwayforthemtocontinuelivingtogether,andsotheirrelationshipcomesdowntofiguringoutthelogisticsofhow tomanagetheseparation.TatsuodoesnotwantHarukotoleavehimandreturntohermother'shouseinNakano,andhetellsHarukoasmuchinafeebleattemptto salvagesomethingofhismarriage: ''Howaboutifyoutrystayinghere,withfreedomtodoasyouplease?Don'tyouseethatyouwillonlybeinthewayinNakanobecausetheyonlyhavetworoomsinthehouse? Isn'ttheresomewayforthetwoofustoworkatthistogether?" Tatsuomadethissuggestion,butHarukorolledoverandsaidthatthetwoofthemlivingtogetherwasjustnotaproperlife.Shewentontosaythatshedidnothatehimatall,but continuingoninthisway,draggingalonginthislifeashusbandandwife,well,thatwastoomuch.Shesaid,inarathersullenmanner,thatshecouldnotstandthethoughtthat sometimestheimageofanotherwouldbeharboredinherheart,andthatsuchunhappinessandmaltreatmentwouldbeunbearable.Iftheyhadlivedtogetherformanyyears,there mayhavebeenoccasiontocommentironicallyonthenatureoftheirmarriage,butgiventheshortamountoftimetheyhadactuallylivedtogethertheybothknewthatanyirony waspointless.40

Dealingwiththesadstateofaffairsisburdensomeforthemboth,andsotheprocessbecomesanextremelyslowandpainfulone.Thereisnodenyingthatlovehas beenlost;theirinteractionsaregentlebutbusinesslike,withbothpartiesintentonbeingfairandjust. Haruko'sbrothercomplicatesmattersbytellingTatsuothathefeelshissisterisbeingunreasonable.HeencouragesTatsuotobestricter,andhesaysmanydisparaging thingsaboutHaruko.Tatsuocannotbringhimselftofollowhisbrother­in­law'sadvice,andsohemustshrugoffthisfamilypressure,anotherinstanceofthisthemethat remainedconsistentthroughoutFumiko'scareer.TatsuodoesnotseeanyreasonableorlogicalreasontodenyHarukoherfreedom,despitewhathisin­lawssuggest.

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Thefundamentallycriticalattitudetowardtheconceptofmarriage,asexpressedinRain,AFamilyofWomen,PitifulWife,andLightning,isabsentin"Rainbowsin theWasteland."Itisreplacedbyasomberresignation,anacceptanceofunfortunatecircumstancesandamaturedeterminationtoovercomethem.Somberresignation isalsotheresponsetomarriagein"FloatingGrassplot." "FloatingGrassplot"isalsoaboutamarriagethathasbecomemoreofasocialformalitythananysortofspiritualbond.Itiswritteninthethirdperson,buttoldmainly fromthehusbandMichitsugu'spointofview.Michitsuguisdepressedthathismarriagehascometosolittle,andhecontemplatessuicideasawayout.Hehastwo youngchildren,TokikoandShigeichi,whomhelovesdearlyandwhoheimagineswillcommitsuicidewithhim,leavinghiswife,Kikuko,alonetodoasshepleases. Thechildrenareunawareoftheirfather'sintentions,althoughtheyknowthatsomethingisnotrightbetweentheirparents. Kikukoisaveryindependentpersonandthestoryopenswhenshehasbeengonefromthehouseforthreedayswithoutcontactingthefamilytotellthemwheresheis. Whenshefinallyreturnsshesaysthatshewasvisitingherparents,andsheshowsnocompunctionabouthavingleftabruptlywithoutwarning. Thenarrativegivesenoughfamilyhistorytoexplainhowthefamilyhascometobethewayitis:Michitsuguhadbeenconscriptedduringthewar,andwhenhereturned homehefoundthathisplaceofemploymenthadbeenburnedtotheground.Thepostwareconomybeingslowatfirst,hecannotfindemploymentandthefamilymust dependonKikuko,whomakesmoneybysewing.Thefactthatsheisthesolesourceofincomegiveshermorepowertodoasshepleases,forMichitsuguistoo concernedaboutthewelfareofhischildrentoalienatetheonepersonwhosupportsthem.BeingunemployedmakesMichitsuguloseself­respectandself­confidence, anditisinthisdepressedstatethatweseehimatthebeginningofthenarrative. Asin"RainbowsintheWasteland,"thespousesin"FloatingGrassplot"clearlyrecognizethattheirmarriagehasdeterioratedtothepointwhereithasnomeaning: Everymorning,iftheweatherwasgood,MichitsuguwouldleavethehouseonthebankoftheriverineastNakanoandgooutwalking,butlatelyhefeltthatthesewalkswere meaningless,andthishecouldnotstand.Stuckinawhirlpooloffalsehoods,anemptinesswherehecouldnotgraspevenasinglemajorreasonforliving,Michitsuguwas nonplussedathisownfate.Hefelthiswifeandchildrenweretobepitied,butthereseemednowayaroundthisfateddestiny.AttimesMichitsuguwouldgazeatKikukoand wondersuspiciouslyifshedidnotwishhimanearlydeath.Andherwayoftalkingtothechildren

Page125 whenshewastiredintheevening,asifsheweresettingupalineofdefense,madehimuncomfortable. Shehadpassedthepastfewmonthsinthisdarkmood,butMichitsugucouldseethroughheract.Hewassureshewasuptosomething. Hedidnotknowhowlongthisemptymarriagewouldcontinueonthisway,butheadjustedtoKikuko'swayofdoingasshepleased,coollyplacinghimselfalongsideheronthese traintracksoffallacy.41MichitsuguandKikukoweredeeplyatodds,andtheybothprobedatthatdiscord.Kikukoseemedtobeaimingatthechancetoseparate,and Michitsugufeltitwarilyinhissoul.42

ThedepressionMichitsugufeelsisuncharacteristicofFumiko'searlierprotagonists,especiallywhenhethinksthat"thereseemednowayaroundthisfateddestiny."43 Afewpagesearlier,though,heexpressesamoreoptimisticoutlookonlife: Michitsuguhadnot,however,givenuphopeforhimself.Hehadlosthopeforthelifehewasliving,buthestillhadaglimmerofhope,onethatmightbedredgedoutofthemuddy swampintowhichhehadfallen.Hefeltasortofeasycomfort,asiftheclimaxofdesperationwasjustalittlefurtherbeyondwherehewas.44

Still,Michitsuguisreallytoodepressedtobesavedbyonesmallglimmerofhope.Thisstorywaswritteninearly1951,monthsbeforeFumiko'sdeath,anditshows thefatalismanddepressionsocommonintheworksfromthattime.Michitsuguhaslosthisfaithinhisabilitytobetterhislife.Hebelievesthathehasnocontrol,that anychoicehemakeswillhavenopositivebearingonhissituation. "FloatingGrassplot"differsfrom"RainbowsintheWasteland"inthattheformerdoesnotapproachmarriageasasocialobligation,whereasthelatterdoes.Ifanything, Michitsuguseesmarriageasafinancialarrangementthatiscomplicatedbychildren.IfitwerenotforTokikoandShigeichi,onecanimagineMichitsugubeingableto separatefromKikuko,buttheirpresencepreventshimfromstrikingoutonhisown.Michitsugudoesnotmeditateonthelossofloveinhismarriage,andinthissense too,hediffersremarkablyfromTatsuo.Bothmen,however,areconcernedwiththeirfutures.Tatsuowantsaslow,discreetseparationinordertominimizetheamount ofpainandembarrassmentitisboundtocause.Hetriestomakeconcreteplansforthefuture,insteadoffocusingonhismoreimmediatemaritalstrife.Michitsuguis soconcernedaboutthefuture(particularlyhisandhischildren'swell­beinginit)thathedecidestoavoiditbycommittingsuicide. ThroughTatsuoandMichitsugu,Fumikorevealsanewphenomenoninhermethodofevaluatingtheworld;aphenomenonperhaps

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bestdescribedasapause,onethatprovidesthechancetoconsiderissuespreviouslyavoidedeitherthroughescapismorselectedawareness.Thepetulanceofearlier protagonistsheregiveswaytoamorepatientmaturity,albeitonehauntedbydespair. Illegitimacy Fumikoherselfwasanillegitimatechild.Itseemsnatural,therefore,thattheissueappearinherfiction,butwhatismostnotableisthefactthatshedoesnotview illegitimacyasaprimarydeterminantofaction.Althoughsherecognizesthatsocialpressureswillinfluencehowabastardistreated,illegitimacydoesnotnecessarily dictateone'sfuture.AswithmostofFumiko'scharacters,theillegitimatepersonretainshis/herfreewill,andtheindividual'schoicesarewhatshapeanddecidehis/her fate. Fumikousuallyportraysillegitimatechildrenasmisunderstoodproblemchildrenwhohaveasortofnaivewisdomaboutthemwhichadultsdonotfullyunderstandor appreciate.Thefamilyproblemsthatresultfromthestraincausedbyillegitimacyaremoreoftenthannotdealtwithinapractical,pragmaticmanner.Thecharactersdo notconcernthemselveswiththepsychologicalramificationsofillegitimacy(e.g.,feelingsofinferiority)somuchasthesociallogisticones(e.g.,convincingothersthat oneshouldbetreatedthesameasanylegitimatechild). IllegitimacyismentionedinagoodnumberofFumiko'sworks,includingJunenkan(TenYears,1940),Inazuma(Lightning,1936),and"Hyoga"(TheGlacier,1938), butperhapsthemoststrikingtreatmentofthesubjectisthatfoundinKawauta(RiverSong,1941).TheillegitimatecharacterinthisworkisShimagiYasuko,ayoung girlwhoisregardedasa"problemchild"atschool.Hisakoisherteacher,andshepitiesYasuko.AfterYasukolosesbothherparents,Hisakotriestogiveherextra attentiononlytobereprimandedbyafellowteacheratschoolfordisplayingfavoritismtowardonestudent.Still,HisakocannotbutfeelforYasukoandsoshetakes herunderhertutelage,providingYasukowithaplacetostayandsomeschoolsupplies(whichHisakopaysforoutofherownpocket).WhatHisakodoesnot understandisthatYasukodoesnotwantpity,thatthecharitywhichHisakogivesheronlymakesherfeelmorelonely.Yasukoistooyoungtoexpressherfeelingsin anybutthemostsimplisticterms,buthervaluesarestillclear:shewantsindependence,shewantstoberesponsibleforherself,andshewantstomakeherown decisions.Shecannotbearbeingsubjectedtothecontrolthatadultswanttoexerciseonher.

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HisakotriestoexplaintoYasukothatshehasnochoicebuttoconformtosociety'sstrictures,butYasukoresiststhelecture.Hisakosays: "Youmustnotthinkonlyofyourself.Nowthatyouhavecometostaywithmethereisnowhereelsetogo,soyoumustputallyourenergiesintoyourstudies.JustlikeI've alwayssaid,right?Peoplearedifferentfromcatsanddogs.Yourmotherwillhavenopeaceifyougoaboutalwaysputtingyourselfbeforeeverythingelse....Lifeisdifficultfor everybody.Don'tgothinkingthatyouaretheonlyonewhoissad.Youmustnotthinkthatyoualoneareunhappy.You'reundermycare,now...youmustgainstrengthfrom that.Mr.Kawajiriisabroadservinghiscountry.45Soldierscan'tjustgohomeoftheirownaccordwhenbeinginthemilitarybecomesunpleasant,youknow.Youmustn'tcryover suchthingsasthis.We'veallgottogetalongtogether,don'twe?We'veallgottotakecareofthingsathomewhiletheothersareoffatwar.Mr.Kawajiriwouldsurelythink poorlyofyouifhesawthisbehavior.Yousaidyouwantedtogohome,butwherewouldyougo?" "IwouldgotoUmamichiandbecomeamaid." "Mygoodness,amaid?Haveyouthoughtaboutthat?Ifyouwanttobeamaid,Iwillsendyouwhereveryouwanttogo,butyoucouldn'tdothework.Butcomenow,ifthereis somethingyouarelackingjusttellmewhatitis.Youdon'tunderstandhowmuchIcareforyou,doyou?" Askediftherewassomethinglacking,Yasukobrokeoutintotears.Shewasnotwantingforfoodorclothing,butsomehowshestillfelthelplesslyforlorn.Shehadmadenofriends atschoolandwasleftfeelingthattherewassomethingmissinginherlife. "Comeon,tellmeifyoulackanything.That'sright,justtellittomestraight." ButeventhoughHisakohadsatherdownforthisdirectconversation,Yasukocouldnotdescribewhatitwasthatshefoundlacking.Sheherselffounditquiteoddthatshewas boredandlonelydespitethefactthatshehadeverythingsheneeded.Hermindwasfilledwithablackcloudofdissatisfactionanddiscontentforwhichshecouldnotfindwords. Shelookedup,asifshehadsuddenlyhituponit,andsaid,"Iwantmyownmoney." "Money?" "Yes,Iwantmoneytobuycrayonsandpencilsandthings." "Well,yes,butdon'tIbuycrayonsandpencilsandthingsforyou?" ThecrayonsthatherteacherhadboughtforhercameinanuglyboxandYasukohatedthem.HisakodidnotunderstandintheleastYasuko'sdesiretohaveherownmoneyandto buythingsherself.Yasukofeltlikebuyingthingswithherownmoneywhenevershefeltlonely.Shewantedtobuysomebreadandtakeittoherteachers. "Thereisnowhereelseforyoutogobuthere.Ifitismoneythat

Page128 youwant,Iwillgiveittoyou.Butwhatwillbecomeofsuchmoneythatyouhaveforbuyingcrayonsandpencils?Thingsaren'teasyformerightnow.It'sstrangethatyoucan't understandthat." "Iwanttobecomeamaidandmakelotsofmoneyandgiveittoeverybody,"Yasukosaidclearly,hereyespuffywithtears.HisakostrokedYasuko'ssofthairwithherhandsand felthelplessfacedwiththehopelessnessofYasuko'ssituation.Maybeitwasbesttoletthischildgowhereshewantedtogo,shethought.Ifleftonherown,perhapsshewould discovertheroadonwhichshemusttravel.46

Theabilitytobuycrayonsandpencilswithherownmoneyrepresentstheabilitytomakealldecisionsonherown,thatis,theabilitytoexercisefreewill.Hisako'spity stemsfromtheknowledgethatYasukolacksastablefamily,thatsheispoor,andthatsheisillegitimate.ToHisako,thesearefatalcharacteristicstoberightedthrough charity.ToYasuko,theyareincidentalcharacteristicstoberightedwitheffort.LikesomanyFumikocharacters,Yasukodoesnotwantpity;shewantsthechanceto workandsupportherself.Heragepreventsherfrombeingtakenseriously. OnedayYasukogoestoAsakusa(theneighborhoodwheresheusedtolive)anddoesnotcomehomeuntillateatnight.Hisakostaysawakeandwaitsforher,and whilesheiswaitingsherealizesthatYasukomayhavebeenrightallalongabouthowtoliveone'slife: Justwhatismakingmesolonely?Everybodyfeelslonelyatsometimeoranother.Butdoesthatmakeitrighttoyieldtoit?Onemustcreatethebrightspotsinone'slifeonone's own.I'veneveroncethoughtaboutchildren'shappiness.I'vealwaysthoughtaboutchildrenthroughthelogicaleyesofanadult.YasukosaidthatIwasaliar.I'mnotsureexactly whatshewasreferringtowhenshedid,butcometothinkofit,perhapsitwasbecauseIamlivinginsidemyownworldofconstructs.Perhapsshehasseenthroughmyfacade.47

Inthismoment,Hisakorealizestwothings:first,thatonlysheisresponsibleforseeingtoitthatshethrives;second,thatherreasoning(uptothispoint)isafalse construct,thatisunnecessaryfor,andperhapsevenharmfulto,theachievementofhergoals.Yasukoisnotconcernedwiththecomplicationsofadultsociety,andher abandonenableshertothrive.Thus,Fumikotellsus,whiletheexerciseoffreewillisessentialtohappiness,soistheabilitytoforsakeapparentlylogicalconstructs.It isthiskindofmessagethatmighthavecausedcriticstodescribeFumikoasbothanihilistandananarchistwriter,althoughIwouldsimplycallitFumiko'sintellectually lazywayofgettingaroundthechallengeofdefiningherethicsclearlyandavoidingcomplexconstructs. InTenYears,Lightning,and"TheGlacier"Fumikodepictsillegitimacyasdestructivetofamilystructure,buttheunstablefamiliesin

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theseworksaresomorebecausetheillegitimatecharactersaresiblingsallfatheredbydifferentmenthanbecausetheirparentsarenotmarried.AsinRiverSong, beingillegitimateisnotamajorconcernforthecharactersintheseworks;rather,itisahardfact—onethatcannotbealteredorerased—andthereforedoesnotmerit muchattentionoranxiety.Thecharactersaccepttheirbirthsandmoveonwiththeirlives,transcendingthestigmaoftheirstatusatleastintheirownminds.Compare thiswiththetreatmentofillegitimacyinShigaNaoya'sAn'yakoro(ADarkNight'sPassing,1937),inwhichtheprotagonist,Kensaku,agonizesforpagesoverthe possibilitythathewasbornoutofwedlock,andonecanseearemarkabledifference.WhereShiga(Kensaku)cannotgetpastthemerethoughtofthepossibilityof beingillegitimate,Fumiko'scharactersbeginwithillegitimacyacknowledged,accepted,andthinkitmeritsnofurtherconsideration. Ithinkthatthisutilitarianviewoflife,withitsphilosophicallyuncomplicatedapproachtoissuesthatwouldcausemuchmoreconsternationtothosesuchasShigainthe highercirclesofsociety,isalargepartofwhatmadeFumikoapopularwriter.Theselectivitywithwhichhercharactersapproachproblems,thatis,thewaythey choosetofocusonconcreteissuesnotabstractones,alsoconveysasenseofearnestnessbeyondanysortofculpability.Thecharacterswhoavoidmarriageforthe sakeofdoingsomethingelsemayneverdefinethat"somethingelse,"buttheirsincerityputsthemabovereproach.Likewise,theillegitimatecharacterswholongfor respectdonotholdupachievementsandconcretegoalsasproofthattheydeservethatrespect;rather,theyholduptheirhumanityandtheirabstractdesires,things that,intheirminds,validatetheirrighttobefreedofconcreterestraints. Thesecharacterstrulyreflecttheircreator,awomanwhodemandedrespectsolelyonthebasisofherearnestness.Fumikoaskedthatshebefreetodesireandfreeto choose,andshebasedherclaimtothesefreedomsexclusivelyonherdesireorneedforthem.Thattherewerewaysshecouldbetterpresenthercase,philosophically soundargumentsthat,ifcarefullyconsidered,couldfullysupporthercause,wasnotimportanttoher.Itseemedplaintoherthatshewasright,andthatthesecretto communicatingthiswastodosointhemostsimplewaypossible.Eveninthelateryearsofhercareer,despitethefactthatshenolongerbelievedmuchinpeople's abilitytoimprovethemselves,shestillheldthatifonekeptone'sthoughtssimple,onecouldnotbeheldculpableifthingswentwrong.

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Chapter5 WarandFatalism TheEncroachingDarkness Someliterarycriticsnotethat,afterthewar,Fumikobegantowrite"dark"works,butfewofthemtrytodefineexactlywhatitisthatmakesawork"dark."1 It cannotbethesubjectmatter;despitethepotentiallydepressingthemesofherearlierworks—poverty,unemployment,malnutrition,andsoon—wehaveseenhowa faithinwill,inone'sabilitytochosepathsforimprovementandhavesomecontroloverone'sexistence,instilledFumiko'swritingwithanupbeat,optimisticair.The subjectmatterofthelaterworks,manyofwhichalsoareaboutpeoplelivinginpoverty,didnotchangesignificantlyenoughforittobethesole''darkening"factorin Fumiko'swriting.Rather,Isuggestthatitwasanewfatalisticoutlookthatcausedaqualitativechange.ManycriticsquoteapassagefromtheafterwordofDrifting CloudsinwhichFumikosays: Iwantedtowriteaboutman'sfate,afatewhichcouldbeoverlookedbyeveryoneandwhichflowedalonginanemptyvoid.Myplanwastowrite...aboutaworldwithnoplot,to writeanovelperipheraltotheworldofnovelsandwhichcouldnotbeexplained.2

Butonlyoneofthesecritics,FujikawaTetsuji,comesclosetorecognizingtheimportantmessageinthisstatement:thatFumikowaswritingaboutfate.Fujikawasays thatallofFumiko'snovelsarededicatedtothedepictionoffate,butinfactthisisnottrueofmostofFumiko'spre­warworks.3 YetFujikawa'sstatementisquitetrue aboutthepostwarworks.WhereastheprewarFumikowroteaboutthestrengthofhumancharacter,thepostwarFumikofocusedherattentiononman's shortcomings—despondency,irresponsibility,andimmorality—andunderlyingalltheseundesirabletraitsisalossoffaithintheefficacyoffreewill.Initiative, responsibility,andmoralitycanonlyexistifonehasfreewill.4 ItisimpossibletomarkthetimeatwhichFumiko'swritingchanged.Thetrendfromnondeterminismtodeterminismisunmistakable,butthereareexceptions,suchas theearlyshortstory"TheOyster"inwhichtheprotagonistseemsunabletohelphimselfinanywayandsuccumbstoenvironmentalchangesaroundhimwithoutso much

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asastruggle.Andthelatershortstory"Karasu"(Crow,1949)isanotablynondeterministicworkaboutayoungman,TaniiMamoru,whohaslosthissiblingsduring thewarandwhoisnothappybeingacollegestudentatWasedaUniversity.Heleavesschoolandhomeandgoesonatriptothemountainstocollecthisthoughts.He considerssuicide,butaftermeetingmanypeoplewhoselivesaremoredifficultthanhisownhedecidesthatsuicideisnottheanswer,andthathislifeisnotasbadas hethought.Taniiisquitedifferentfromthedespondentprotagonistsinotherworkspublishedaroundthesametime,andinhimFumikorevisitstheantideterministic fervorofheryouth. Thelossofone'sabilitytochooseisanintermediarysteptothesubmissiontoaperceivedpredestinedfateshownbyFumiko'slatercharacters.Whereasthe charactersinPitifulWife,"AFlower'sPlace,"and"DancingGirl"feeldepressedabouthavingtheirfreewillcurtailedwhentheyareforcedintoundesirablemarriages, thecharactersinDriftingClouds,"Rain,''"Fubuki"(BlowingSnow,1946),"Nagusame"(Comfort,1946),"TheSeaofTravelWeariness,""Yoruno komorigasa"(EveningUmbrella,1948),"Bones,"and"Downtown"feeldepressedbecausetheybelievetheyhavenofreewillinthefirstplace. WarWorks TheaftermathofWorldWarIIleftFumikogreatlydisillusioned,andthismayhavebeenthemajorreasonforthequalitativechangeinherlaterworks.Duringthewar shetraveledtoChinaandIndochinaaspartoftheJapanesewareffortandsawmuchdevastationfirst­hand.Thetwoprominentworksofwarreportagethatshe producedduringthistimewereBattlefrontandTheNorthBankUnit.Battlefrontiswritteninanepistolaryformat,althoughthelettersarenotaddressedtoanyone inparticular,Simply"you."5 TheNorthBankUnitiswritteninadiaryformat,butunlikeDiaryofaVagabond,itispurelyafirstpersonnarrativeasonewould expectatruediarytobe.BothworksdepictthetripthatFumikotooktoChinaintheautumnof1938onwhichsheaccompaniedJapanesetroopsforaboutamonth. Shewasnotsparedthesightofillnessanddeathonthatjourney,butitdidnotseemtomoveherunlessitwassufferedbyJapanesetroops.Shevisitedafieldhospital, andwentsofarastoentertheoperatingroombeforethesightsovercameherandshefeltfaint.6 Thesadplightofsomeofthesoldiersshemetmovedhertotears, andheroverallexperiencepresentedsuchashocktohersystemthatshefeltunabletowriteaboutit: HowodditisthatIhavenootherpassioninmysoulsaveforwhatIfeelaboutwar.Ihavenotgivenupthinkingaboutwritingfurther

Page133 manuscripts,butatthispointIfeellikethoselovestorieswilltakecareofthemselves.I'vehadenoughofthem.AllthosethingsIwrotesofervently[inthepast]—whatcomfort aretheytomenow?Idon'tmindifIbecomepoor.I'llnotwriteathing.Ireceivedaletter[fromJapan]askingmetowriteapoemaboutthenurseshere,butthatissomethingI cannotdorightnow.ItisasmuchasIcandotobreathe.7

Butshedidwrite,astheexistenceofthemanuscriptsattests.Whenshewrote,sheoftenfocusedonindividualsoldiersandhowthewaraffectedthem.Shealsowrote aconsiderableamountaboutthehorsesoftheJapanesearmy(shefoundthemadmirableworkanimals,andfeltsorryfortheminthemidstoftheman­madewar). Andinamovethatwasquiteadivergencefromallherprevioustravelwriting,shedescribedscenery.Itseemsthatshewaseagertowriteaboutanythingbutthe underlyingmechanismthatdrovethewarmachine;attimesthatmeantherwritingshowedhintsofnaivetéandignorance.Itispossiblethatgovernmentpressure preventedherfromwritinganythingevenremotelysympathetictotheChinese,althoughasacivilianshewouldnothavebeenunderthesamemilitaryordersasthe writerandarmycorporalHinoAshihei(1907–1960),whoclaimedthathehadstrictguidelinesregardinghisdepictionoftheJapaneseArmy.8 Still,thepressureto portraytheJapaneseArmyinagoodlightmusthavebeenfairlystrong,andthatmaybethereasonFumikodidso. Likeotherwritersinvolvedinreportingonthewar,FumikowrotetoputahumanfaceontheJapanesearmy,toshowthepeoplebackhomehowproudtheyshould beoftheirfightingmen.DespitethedeathanddestructionthatshesawinChina,FumikoincongruouslycommentsinTheNorthBankUnitthatitwouldbesweetto bringthechildrenofthesoldierstothefronttoshowthemtheworkthattheirfathersweredoing.9 Emphasisontheindividual,personalaspectofwarwoulddraw moresympathyfromthoseathomethanabroad,patrioticappealforsupport,anditwasthisthattheJapanesearmyhopedforwhenitengagedtheservicesof popularwriterssuchasFumiko.However,Fumiko'swriting,althoughitglorifiedtheJapanesesoldiers'spiritofcamaraderieandtheircodeofhonor,alsocontained suchgruesomepassagesasthefollowingfromBattlefront: Warhasapainful,barbaricsidetoit,butitalsohasplentyoftrulysplendidaspects,aspectswhichareexcruciatinglybeautiful.Once,asIwaspassingthroughavillage,Iheard thefollowingconversationbetweentwosoldierswhohadcapturedamemberoftheChineseresistance: "I'dliketoseehimburnatthestake." "Nah,whenIthinkabouttheimageof[ourfellowsoldier]whodiedinTianjiavillageitmakesmesicktomystomach.That'sreallyoffensive..."

Page134 "Let'skillhimlikeaman,withasinglestrikeofthesword."Andwiththat,thecapturedChinesesoldierdiedinstantly,withoutamomentofsuffering,atasingle,splendid,strokeof asword.Ilistenedtothesoldiers'conversationwithafeelingofconcurrence.Idonotfeelthatthisisintheleastbitbrutal.Whatareyourthoughts?I'dlikeyoutounderstand thesesoldiers'purestateofmind.Thestrongmemoryoftheirfallencomradecalledforththeirsentimentalityandarousedgreatindignationinthesesoldiers'hearts.10

Fumikotriestocelebratethesoldiers'"purestateofmind"(junsuinaheitainoshinri),buttheimageofthetwomendiscussingtheprisoner'sdeathsodispassionately cannothelpbutillustratethebrutalitycarriedoutbytheJapaneseArmy.Inthissense,itisquestionablewhethershesucceededinhereffortstopromotehercountry's cause.Onemayaskifthisworkmighthavebeensubversive—ifshewascriticizingthewarwithsuchabrutaldepiction.ButFumikoneverusedsatireinanyofher works,before,duringorafterthewar.Withoutaprecedentorantecedent,itseemsunlikelythattherewasahiddenantiwarmessage. FumikodidnotcommentpubliclyonherwarreportageafterJapan'sdefeat,eventhoughherattitudetowardwaranditseffectonthecommonmanchanged remarkably.NeitherBattlefrontnorTheNorthBankUnitwereincludedinthe1951collectedworks(Shincho*HFZ),andonlythelatterwasincludedinthe1977 collectedworks(HFZ).Thedecisiontoomittheseworkswasinkeepingwiththegeneraltrendtoomitwar­relatedwritinginauthors'collections,asnotedbyDonald Keene: ManyJapaneseauthorsinlateryearsfeltembarrassedbythewartimeenthusiasmtheyhadvoicedconcerningtheuniquespiritoftheJapaneseraceandsimilarthemes,and refusedtoallowsuchwritingstobeincludedinwhatweresupposedlytheir"completeworks"(zenshu).11

Fumikowasnoexception;herattitudetowardswarchangedcompletelyaftertheJapanesedefeat.Theendofthewarfoundherstunnedbythedevastationwarhad wreakedonveterans,theirfamilies,andothercivilians.Andalthoughshedidnotparticipateintheeditorialdecisiontoomitherwarworksfromherzenshu,itis reasonabletoexpectshewouldhavemadesuchachoicegiventhechance. TheaspectofwarthatseemstohavebeenthehardestforFumikotoacceptwastherandomdistributionofsuffering.One'sindividualmerithadlittlebearingon whetheronewaskilled,lostalovedoneorwasburnedoutofhomeorbusinessbyenemybombing.Fumikohadspentyearswritingaboutpeoplewhoworkedhard andpulledthemselvesupbytheirownbootstraps;thustheideathatindividualeffortor

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involvementwasmeaninglessnaturallythrewherworldintoturmoil.Shediscoveredthatfreewillseemednottomatter,aswararbitrarilydistributedfortuneand disaster. Inmostofherpostwarworks,thisdeterminedfatedealsmisfortunestothecharacters,althoughoccasionallytherearefatalisticallyfortunatescenes.Giventhis,one couldarguethatFumikodidnotloseherspiritofoptimism,ratherherdepictionofitsimplybecamemoresubtleinherlateryears.Butthereisafundamentaldifference betweentheconfidentscenesandeventsoftheearlyworksandthoseinthelaterones:intheformer,whenacharacterbenefitsitisusuallyaresultofhisorherown actions.Inthelatter,goodandbadluckalikearedistributedarbitrarily. FumikospentAugust1944toOctober1945asanevacueeinthecountrysideoutsideofTokyoinwhichthecivilianpopulationwasthreatenedbyAlliedbombing. Afterthelastyearsofthewarpreventedherandotherwritersfrompublishingduetomaterialshortages,Fumikooneagainbeganwritingandpublishingprolifically. Amongthoseworkspublishedin1946were"BlowingSnow,""Comfort,""Rain,"and"TheSeaofTravelWeariness."In1947,shepublished''Uruwashiki sekizui"(SplendidPith)and"Kawahaze"(RiverGoby).In1948shepublished"EveningUmbrella,"andin1949shepublished"Bones"and"Downtown." ThePrimacyofSurvival Alltheabovestoriesconcernpeoplewhoareadverselyaffectedbythewar.Mostofthestoriesputemphasisontherandommannerinwhichthesepeople'sliveshave changed(primarilybecauseofthewar),andonthediscouragementthattheyoftenfeel.AcomparisonoftheseworksrevealsboththeprimacyofsurvivalinFumiko's worldviewandalsothelossoftheauthor'sfaithinfreewill.Byprimacyofsurvival,Irefertotheimportanceofbiologicalexistence,whichisnecessarybeforeany otheraspectofone'slifecanbeanissue.Fumiko'swritingrevealsanunderlyingunderstandingoftheimportanceofsimplybeingaliveinordertoachievevalues. Thestorythatperhapsbestillustratestheprimacyofsurvivalis"Comfort,"thestoryofanindigentman,Shukichi*,whosehouseburneddowninthewarandwhose wifehasdisappeared,herwhereaboutsunknowntobothherhusbandandherfamily.Shukichimisseshiswife,Kiyoko,andwouldlikehertoreturn,buthehasno meansoffindingher.Heconsoleshimselfbyenjoyingthecompanyofhisfriend,Fuji.Thetwoofthemgofishing,andhavethefollowingconversation:

Page136 "Theworldsurehaschangedanawfullot,hasn'tit?Akanmeofpotatoescostsfifteenyen—whataworld,huh?"12 "That'sforsure.Gosh,Fuji,weren'ttheolddayswonderful?IworkedinKinichiandonmywayhomeIcouldbuyamackerelsupperinthemarket.Bananascouldbehadforten sen,toboot.13IusedtoeatsomuchI'dletoutabigbelchafterwards.—ButnowIfeeljustlikeI'mseeingasortofmonster.ThatmonsterthatIwassosurewouldneverappear hasarrived,andnowtheworldhaschangedcompletelyintoanextraordinary,odd,bizarreplace.Atleastyoustillhaveyourwifeandkids,butwithKiyokogone,Ihavenothing. AllIhaveisthefactthatIamstillalive—but,youknow,that'sgoodinitself.Idon'tintheleastfeellikegivinguphereanddying.Ineverthink,'Damnitall,I'msolonelythatI'dbe betteroffdead!'I'mmostlythankfulthatIhaven'tbeenthinkinglikethat.Idon'tthinkitcanbesaidthat'Mankindisthelordofallcreation,'giventhatallwedoiseatsteamed potatoesandthenthrowourselvesdowntosleep,doyou?" "Ah,enoughofallthat.Isn'titamazingthatwearebothstillalive?...Let'sdrinktothat.Let'sdrinkandbemerry."14

Shukichi*wandersthestreetsafterpartingwithFuji,andmeetsvariouspeople,oneofwhomisaboyoftwelveorthirteenwhohasabrief,terseconversationwith ShukichiandthenstealsShukichi'sbaganddisappearsintothenight.Still,hereflectsonhowhappyheisjusttobealive: Ashemunchedonsomebeans,Shukichithoughthowhappyhewasthathehimselfhadsurvived.AhorrificnumberofpeoplehaddiedinAsakusa.Somanypeoplehadbeen burnedtodeath,andithadn'tevenbeenduetosomenaturaldisaster.Shukichiwasalmostsmugwithhappinessatthethoughtofhavingsurviveditall.Hewasrelievedthathe hadnotfallenvictimtotherainoffirethathadfallendailywhenthehugeairplanescame.Shukichihadnotasingleenemy;hehadnoreasontofightwiththosebigairplanes.He knewnothingofforeignlands,andhesawnoreasonforsomanychildrentojointhemilitaryandgotowar.15

Hemaybehappytobealive,butheisinterriblehealth,andhesoonfallstotheground,deliriousfirstfromillnessandthenlatertheinjuryhesustainsinhisfall.There arepeoplearoundhim,buttheirvoicesfadeintothedistance,"likethecryofsummercicadas."Amiserableendisathand,butFumikoinsistsonmakingthispitiful deathanhonorableone: Asthetimeslippedby,thenightgraduallygrewbrighter,butthecitywasnotyetawake.Asthenightworeon,thelightoftheshinymoonmovingoverheadalsobecamebrighter andbrighter,andthegroundallaroundshoneasifcoveredwithsnow.Onthegentleslopeoftheembankment,Shukichipulledareedmatoverhim.Hisfeetstuckout,

Page137 coveredintatteredsocks.Itwasatragicwaytodie,butShukichi*diditasifitwereamosthonorablewaytodie,lyingfaceupwiththematpulledupoverhishead.Itwasnota horriblewaytodie,itwasanentirelyhappywaytodie.Shukichislepteternallylikeonepebbleinnature'slimitlessrealm.16

Insum,Shu;kichidoesnotcareabouthispoverty,pain,futureprospects,orimmediateorfuturegratification.Qualityoflifeisnotimportant;indeed,Shukichihas convincedhimselfthat,beingalowlycreaturewho"eatssteamedpotatoesandsleeps,"hedeservesnomorethansubsistence.Fumikowantsthereadertopity Shukichi—whichonedoes,forheisavictimofrandomviolence—butshealsowantsthereadertoadmirehim,tobelievethathisdeathwas"honorableandhappy," not''horrible,"whichthereadercannotdo.Fumikogivesusnoreasontodoso;insteadshegivesusamanwhohaslittlerespectforhisownhumanity.Herevelsinhis ownexistence,eventhoughthatexistenceismiserable.Heaspirestonothingmorethanidlypassingtime.Still,thathedoesnotgiveupallhopeandcommitsuicideis tohiscredit,foritshowssomerecognitionofthevalueoflife. ThisreverenceforlifewasfirstseeninDiaryofaVagabond,whereFumikomadesuchstatementsas"Ah,isn'titgoodtobealive!"17ItwasrepeatedinTheNorth BankUnitwithherconcernoverlosingherownlifewhilereportingfromthebattlefront.18Ofcourse,thejoyoflivingisnotauniqueemotion,andFumiko'swritingis notnecessarilynotableforherexpressionofit.However,thefactthatlife—biologicalexistence—isessentialforallotheractionsdoeshaveadirectconnectiontothe importanceoffreewillinFumiko'sworks;withdeathcomestheendoffreechoice;afterdeath,theindividualisincapableofmakinganyfurtherchoices.When Shukichiisthankfulforsurvivingthewar,heisthankfulfortheabilitytocontinuetochoose.Thepitifulstateofhisexistenceissecondary;whatisprimaryisthathe doesstillexist. Theimportanceoflifeisalsoclearlyexpressedintheshortstory"Rain,"whichconcernsarepatriatedsoldier,Kojiro,whofindsthathecannotreturntohisprewarlife. ThestoryopenswithKojiroenteringabarandaskingforaplacetostayforthenight.Theproprietortellshimthatalltheinnsintheareahaveclosedup(duetothe economicdifficultiesofpostwarJapan),buthefinallyagreestoletKojirostayathisplacethatnight.Theproprietorfeelssorryfortheveteran,forhisownsonhas beenkilledinthewar.Kojirositsanddrinks,andmeditatesonthebitterexperiencehehadwhenhereturnedtohishometownafterbeingdischarged. Kojiroarrivesinhishometowntofindthathisfamilyhadthoughthimkilledinaction,andthathisgirlfriend,Hatsuyo,hadendedupmarryinghisyoungerbrother, Sozaburo.Kojironeverseesthesemembersof

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thefamily;allthisinformationaboutthemispassedontohimbyhisfather,Sakutaro,whomeetsKojiroataneighborhoodinn.Sakutaroissympathetic,but encouragesKojironottoreturntothehouse,foritwouldcausemoretroublethanitwouldbeworth. KojirothengoestoNagoya,wherehetriestofindworkatafactorywherehehasbeenpromisedemployment,buthefindsthatthefactoryhasbeenburnedtothe groundandthereisnoworktobehadthere.Hewandersaboutabit,andendsupinthebarwherehesitsintheopeningscene. WhileKojirotellsSakutaroabouthisexperiencesinthewar,andlaterwhenhetellsthebarkeeperhisstory,therecurringthemeishisdeterminationtolive.Overand overKojirotellshowthesinglegoalofescapingwithhislifepulledhimthroughthemostdifficulttimesofthewar.WhenKojiromeetsSakutaro,theyexchangethe followingwords: "I'msurprisedyou'restillalive,"saidSakutaro. "IworkedashardasIcouldtomakesurethatIcamehomealive."19

Andafewparagraphslater,Kojirorepeatsthissentimentwith: "Iwasdeterminedtolivenomatterwhathappened.Iwantedtolive,andtoseeyouandMotheragain."20

Whenthebarkeeperaskshimwhatbeinginthearmywaslike,Kojiroreplies: "IguessI'mprettyhappy...Nomatterwhat,Iwasdeterminedtocomebackalive.Ifocusedallmyenergiesonthatdesiretolive.IknewIshouldn'teversurrendertodeath,or thinkitwasallover.Ifyou'redeterminedtolive,nomatterwhathappens,thenyouwilldoso." "Iguessso." "Iwascalleduptwice,andbothtimesIwassavedbyendingupinthehospital.21Franklyspeaking,itwasbecauseIdidn'twanttodie." "Ho,aresuchthingsreallypossible?" "Youcan'tgetawaywithanyfunnybusinessinthemilitaryranks.BothtimesthatIwascalledupIthought,'Stayingaliveisnotgoingtobeeasy.'"22

Thebarkeepersaysheisthankfulthathedidnotsufferthesamefateofdeathbyfirethatmanyotherciviliansdid.HeagreeswithKojirothatdeathwouldbe meaningless: "IsureamgladthatIwasn'tburnedtodeath.It'slikeyousay,nothingcomesofdeath,"saidthebarkeeper. "You'rerightthere.We'vegottolivelonglivesandtoassureourselvesofaworldinwhichonecanfeelathome.One'slifeisimportant,afterall,"repliedKojiro.23

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MostofKojiro'sattitudesaboutlifeareareactiontotheemphasisondeaththatheexperiencedinthearmy.Herecallstraining,inwhichsoldiersweremadetospend everyday"makingraftsandlearninghowtodie."24Theattitudeofthesuperiorofficerswastheoppositeofthesoldiers': Kojirowouldneverforgetthedaythatoneofthesuperiorofficersyelledatasoldierwhowasslackingoff,"Ifyoujustthinkyouaregoingtodie,thenyouaresuretobeableto dothis."Thesoldiermutteredthathecoulddoanythingifhejustthoughtthathewouldlive,butifhethoughtthathewastodiethenitwasextremelyeasyjusttofalldownand die.Kojirofeltthesameway.25

Throughoutthestory,Kojiroreflectsontheabnormalityofwar;itisnotnatural,hethinks,forpeopletosufferinthisway,norisitnormalfordeathandpaintoplay suchaprominentroleinanybody'slife.Thefactthathesurvived,however,doesnotprovidehimwiththeunconditionalhappinessthatShukichi*hadin"Comfort." KojiroandShuichirecognizethatbiologicallifeisnecessaryinorderforonetoachieveanythingelse,inordertobeabletomakechoicesandaffectone'sfuture. Thesetwoprotagonistsdonotfeeltheirfatetohavebeendecided;thereareanumberofpleasantpossibilitiesbeforetheireyes—forShukichi,thechancetospend pleasantafternoonsdrinkingandfishingwithhisfriend,forKojirothechancetofindworkandbuildupanormallifeagain—aslongastheyarestillalive.Theirfutures affordthemhopeandpleasantanticipation—thefeelingtheyshareisthatlifewillbegoodforthemiftheycansimplysurvivelongenoughtoenjoyit. Asmentionedearlier,Fumiko'sturnfromfreewilltodeterminismdidnothappenataspecificpointintime;itwasagradualchange.Duringthepostwaryearsthere wasaperiodduringwhichbothsortsofworkswerewritten,aswellasworksthatcombinedthetwoelements.Agoodexampleofthisis"EveningUmbrella,"inwhich theprotagonist,Eisuke,vacillatesbetweenfeelinghelplessandfeelingcapable.Eisukeisawarveteran,onewholostaleginbattleandnowdependsonhiswife, Machiko,tosupportthetwoofthem.ThelossofmobilitymakesEisukefeeluseless,andhehatesbeingunabletowork.Beingdependentonhiswifedepriveshimof fullcontroloverhislife;itreduceshisfreedomtochoose.Hedoesnothaveanincomeandthismeansthatheis,toacertainextent,underMachiko'scontrol.Sheis notadomineeringorpushywoman,butthatdoesnotdiminishthepowersheexercisesoverEisukebysimplemeritofthefactthatsheistheironlysourceofincome. Shehaslittletimetopityhim,forsheisbusyworkingandvisitingherlover(orsoEisukesuspects)ontheside.Allthisleaves

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Eisuke,arationaladultabletomakehisowndecisions,deprivedoftheopportunitytodoso.ButwhatmakesEisukedifferentfromKeikoinPitifulWife,Shuichiin "AFlower'sPlace,"andSuekichiin"DancingGirl"isthatheisnotfullyconvincedthathehastheabilitytocontrolhislife.Hesuspectsit,andthesuspiciongrowswith theprogressionofthenarrative,butheremainsmenacedbythefatalisticattitudehiswifeexhibits. ThestoryopenswithMachikotellingEisukefranklythatheisnotthetypetocommitsuicide,thusemphasizingherfeelingsthathehassolittlecontrolonhislifethathe isevenincapableofendingitofhisownaccord.EisukeisdepressedbyMachiko'swords,andhewaversbetweenadesiretomakesomethingofhimselfandthefear thatsuchathingisimpossible. OnedayMachikoleavesthehousetogoshoppinganddoesnotcomehomeforhours.Eisukebecomesconcerned,sohegoestothetrainstationtowaitforher. Whileheisthere,hemeetsayoungpatrolmanwhoisbrightandcheeryandwhotalkstoEisukeabouttakinginitiativeandimprovinghislife.Eisukeisdrawntothis youngman,forheexpressesaconfidenceinEisuke'sabilitytoact,somethingthatMachikolongsinceceasedtodo.ThepatrolmantellsEisukethathisinjuryshould notstandinhiswayofhavingalivelihood: "Doesyourwoundhurt?"thepatrolmanasked. "Yeah,it'sbadwhenitgetscoldlikethis.It'sbadanytime,forthatmatter.Stuckwithoutajob,it'sworsethanbeingacriminal..." Thepatrolmanrepliedquickly,withasmileinhiseyes,"That'snottrue.Youshouldn'tthinksuchasillything.Youcan'tgothinkinglikethatjustbecauseofoneinjury.Youcan't saythatit'snothing,butifyoudon'tfindawayaroundityou'llalwaysbedependentonothers..."26

ThepatrolmanisabeaconthatshineslightonthataspectofEisuke'slifethathadbeenlostandforgotten:self­esteem.Eisukeclingstothisrayofhope;heknowsthat thepatrolman'sdailypresencewouldbemuchmorebeneficialtohimthanMachiko's,andwhenhefindsoutthattheyoungmanislookingforaroomtorent,he realizesthatitwouldmakehimveryhappytohavesuchapersoninhishouse.HeasksMachikoifshewouldbewillingtotakethepatrolmaninasaboarder,but Machikodismissestheideapromptly;sheexpectsheryoungerbrothertobecomingsoontoattendcollege,andthehouseisnotbigenoughtoaccommodateallfour ofthem.Eisukeisgravelydisappointed: [Eisukeknewthat]therewasnowayMachiko'syoungerbrotherwouldgiveacripplelikehimselftherespectoneshouldshowanolder

Page141 sister'shusband.Eisukewantedeversomuchmoretotakeintheyoungpatrolmanthantotakeinhiswife'sbrother.Eisuke'ssoulhadbeenimpressedwiththepatrolman'skind wordsoffaithinpeople.27

Eisukewantstobelieveinhisownability,tobuildhisself­esteem—inessence,tobelieveheiscapableofmakingchoices—butMachikodoesnothelphimdoso,nor doesEisukeexpecthisbrother­in­lawwilleither.TheresultisthatEisukefeelssmotheredbytheemotionalattritionthatenvelopshismarriageand,hesuspects,so manyothers.Oneday,hetellsMachikoindesperation: "...Youmustbeboredwiththissortoflife.Youarefreetogowhereyouwant,youknow.Iwon'tperish.I'llbefinerunningausedbookstore,justlikeShukichi*said.28I'llget bysomehow.I'vebeendependingonyouforalongtime,butnowIregretit.Desireandregret,Iguessthatiswhatyoucouldcallit...Ican'tstandgoingonlikethis." "Whatcan'tyoustand?"saidMachiko,lickingathreadwithherpuffy,ill­coloredlips,andlookingupatherhusband.Lookingintohereyes,Eisukewasnotsurehowfarhecould trusthiswife.Hewonderedhowmanycouples—couplesjustlikethemselveswhomfatehadthrowntogether—therewereoutthereinthenight.Thosefatedcoupleswentonwith theirliveswhilesuppressingeventhetiniestbreath.Aformlesswailsoundedinthenightwithaterriblypitifulnoise.Andthatwail,frozenjustasitwas,permeatedthedarkest reachesofmemory,atimesofarpastthatithadbecomebutadreamtowhichonecouldnotreturn.Thosefatedpeoplejustsilentlyadjustedandcontinuedwiththeirlives.They hadadjustedtoastateofuncertainty.29

Silentadjustmentisaformofresignation,andEisukefeelsitsmotheringhim.Hewantstoresist,butthepatrolmanistheonlypersonheknowswhoiswillingtohelp himfightagainstit.ThestoryendswithEisukehurtlingabookatthewallinanattempttobreakthestagnantairbetweenhiswifeandhimself.Theactisdesperate,and revealstobothofthemthatsomethingneedstochangethefrozenstateinwhichtheyhavebeenliving. "EveningUmbrella"wasoneofFumiko'slastattemptsatresistingthegrowingfatalismofherlateryears.LikeEisuke,shewanteddesperatelytobelievethattherewas someorderandjusticeintheworld,buttheapparentlyrandomeventsaroundher—evidenceofadeterminedbutirrationalfatemanifestedintheindiscriminate devastationcausedbythewar—becameoverwhelming.Hernihilisticattitudealsomaybeattributabletoherrealizationthatherheartconditionhadbecomeaserious threattoherlife,andthatwithdeathsoclose,thosethingswhichweresoimportantbeforehadcometomatterlittlenow.30Asayoungerwoman,Fumikotookpride inherabilitytopushherselfhardwithoutbecomingill.31Whenherbodybegantogivewayandhermortality

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becameaconstantconcern,itunderstandablycausedhertolosemuchofthevigor—bothphysicalandpsychological—thathadcarriedherthroughmostofherlife. Deathwasonethingoverwhichsheknewshehadlittlecontrol,andtherealizationofthatlackofcontrolcontributedtoherincreasinglydeterministicattitude. Fatalism Theimportanceoflifeand,byextension,theimportanceoffreewillisnottobefoundinmanyotherworksfromFumiko'spostwarperiod.Thepredominantthemein theseworks,asmentionedabove,isasortoffatalism."BlowingSnow"isatypicalshortstoryofthistype.Itisthestoryofawoman,Kane,whoismarriedandhas fourchildren.Kane'shusband,Manpei,isconscriptedandKanespendsagoodamountofthewarpiningforhim.Onedaywordcomesthathehasbeenkilledin action,andwhileKanemournshisdeathsheiscomfortedbyaneighbor,Katsu.Afteraperiodoftime,aromancebloomsbetweenKaneandKatsu,althoughKane's loveforherdeadhusbandstilllingersinherheart.KatsuandKanelivetogetherashusbandandwife(althoughtheyarenotofficiallymarried)untilonedayKatsu comestoKanewithalookofdeepconcern.HetellsherthathehasheardthatManpeiisstillalive,andrecuperatinginamilitaryhospitalnottoofaraway.Kaneand Katsuaredevastatedbythenews,butKatsutellsherthathewilltakehertoseeManpei,andthathewillnotstandintheirway.Hevolunteerstoleavetheircommon­ lawmarriage,andwhileKaneloveshimandfeelsforhim,shecannotdenyherexcitementandjoyatthenewsthatManpeiisalive. WhileallthreecharactersaretogetheratthehospitalwhereManpeiisapatient,anairraidbreaksthetenseair: "Ican'tthankyouenoughforallyouhavedoneformyfamily,"saidManpeitoKatsu,lookingoverathisweepingwife. "No,Ioweyousomuch.I'mjustgladthatyou'realive.Aslongasyouhavelife,thereisnoendtothepossibilities...IwasjustthinkingwhileIwaitedatthehospitalgatehow happyKaneandthechildrenandtheelderswillallbewhenyougetwellandcomebackhome.Thereisnothingformetomind.IthinkI'lldoasIhadplannedbefore:leaveTokyo insearchofwork,"Katsuanswered. Suddenlyaneeriesirensounded. Announcementscameblaringoutoftheradioaboutacomingairattack. Manpeiinstinctivelysquatteddown.Katsu,stillholdinghiscigarette,coveredKaneandleanedupagainstapillar.Anairofpanicenvelopedthehospital.Forawhile,thesounds ofpeoplerunningabout

Page143 andshoutingfilledtheair.Manpeiwasfrantic;theattackingplanesandthenearduskonallsidesclutchedathisheart.Hewonderedhowitwouldbeforthethreeofthemtobe killedlikethisbyabomb.32

Therandomnessofthebombingcausespaniconallsides.Theairraidrepresentsone'sunknownfate,eventsthatonecannotcontrol,thatdonotreflectone'svirtues orlackthereof,andthathavethepotentialtostealone'sverylifeawaywithnoadvancenotice.Emotionshadalreadybeenrunninghighintheward,asManpei,Katsu, andKanehadbeendiscussingtheirawkwardsituationasitstood—asituationthatwasitselfcreatedbytheexogenous,fatedfalsenoticeofManpei'sdeath.Theyfeel helplessinthepresentcircumstances,andtheairraidbringsanewwaveofhelplessness,onepunctuatedbytheurgencyofalife­threateningsituation. Latethatnight,onthewayhomefromthehospital,KatsutriestotakehisleaveofKane.Thesceneisdesolate,andKatsu'sattitudetowardtheentiresituationisone ofresignation: Snowwhirledaroundthemastheygotoffthetrain.Itstucktotheskyandearth,bitsofitblowingaboutwildly.Untiltheylefttheembankmenttheroadwasclear,butawayfrom thebroadembankmenttheworldwasoneslateofwhite,andthewindblewaboutwildly.Intheblinkofaneyethesnowhadpiledupquitehigh,andseemedtoseizetheirfeetas theywalkedalong.Katsuwalkedinfront.Therewasnotalighttobeseen,perhapsbecauseablack­outalarmhadbeensounded. SuddenlyKatsustoppedinhistracksandtookKane'shand.Herhandwascold. "I'llgotoTokyo,sothere'snoneedforyoutoworryaboutme.Manpeidoesn'tthinkbadlyofme,andI'llfindsomethingtodo,restassured.Allright?"hesaid. KatsubroughthismouthupclosetoKane'sear,asiffightingagainstthewind,andspokeloudly. "Ourrelationshipendshere."33

Thefinallineintheabovepassagehasadoublemeaning;theJapaneseisoretachiwa,koremadenoendasa.Thewordenmeans"relation,"butitalsohas overtonesof"fate."Hereitcarriesbothmeanings,asKatsuissayingthattheirrelationshipwasfatedtoendatthispoint. KatsuandKanecontinuetowalkintheblizzard,emotionallytornovertheirsituation.Liketheairraid,therandomswirlingofthesnowisemphasizedinthispassage toaddanelementofrandomness,representativeoftheunpredictableeventsthataffectone'slife.KatsuandKanearevictimizedbythewar(andthesnowstorm),and theyaredepictedaspowerlesstochangetheirsituation.

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WhetheritwasduetothedisillusionmentwhichFumikoexperiencedafterJapan'sdefeatinthewar,ortoherfailinghealthandthesubsequentrealizationthatshehad notlongtolive,theoptimismofDiaryofaVagabondhadfadedtobutaglimmerofitsformerselfbythetimeFumikowroteDriftingClouds.Thechangeof authorialattitudeisfirstevidentwhenonecontraststhetitlesofthetwoworks;whereasthehoroofHoroki(DiaryofaVagabond)canmean"doingasonepleases," "drifitingclouds"connotesnocontroloverwhereonegoes. KodaYukiko,theprotagonistofDriftingClouds,hasmuchincommonwiththenarratorinDiaryofaVagabond;sheisayoung,singlewomanwhoneedsto supportherself.Shehasafewloveaffairsduringthecourseofthenovel,butnoneofthembringhertruehappiness.Butwhileitwouldbeincorrecttosaythatshe showsnoneofthedriveanddeterminationofDiaryofaVagabond'snarrator,shedoesreadilyresignherselftounsatisfactorysituations,anditisthispointthatmakes heramarkedlydifferentsortofcharacterfromFumiko'searliercreations.Yukiko'smainlover,Tomioka,displayssimilarfatalistictendencies.Thereisanincreased useofthewordunmei(fate)inDriftingClouds,usedtoindicatesomethingbeyondthecontrolofthecharacters,aconceptabsentfromDiaryofaVagabond. InthebeginningofDriftingClouds,YukikoisinTokyo,withoutlodgingorfriends.ShehasjustreturnedtoJapanfromabroadandneedstoreestablishherselfinher homecountry.ShegoestovisitIba,abrother­in­lawwithwhomshehadaloveaffairyearsago,asshebelieveshishouseistheonlyplacewhereshecanstay.The thoughtoflivingwiththisdisagreeablemanandhisfamilybringsbackunpleasantmemoriesandshefeelsunhappyabouthersituation,althoughshethinksofitas somethingtowhichsheisfated,andnotsomethingaboutwhichanythingcanclearlybedone.Oneday,asYukikoandIbaheadhomeafteranoutingtoShinjuku, YukikowishesshecouldbewithherloverTomiokainstead: Yukikosuddenlythoughtofthetimeshehadspent[withTomioka]attheHoteiHotelinIkebukuro,andtheideaofgoingbacktoSaginomiyawithIbaandsleepingnexttohimin thattinyroomwasanunpleasantone.Thefactthatshehadgottennothingofwhatshewanted,andthatallshedidnotwantseemedfatefullytosurroundher,leftherwithadry feelinginhersoul.34

Thereisanairofself­pityhere,aswellasatouchofangerat"fate,"bywhichYukikofeelsvictimized.Similarfeelingsofhelplessnessareexpressedthroughoutthe novel,suchasinthefollowingpassage,whichtakesplacestillrelativelyearlyinthenovelwhenshestillhassomehopeforaresumptionofherrelationshipwith Tomioka:

Page145 LatelyYukikowasgiventoweeping,andshewonderedifitdidn'tindicatethatshewasstartingtolosehermind.Whileshewascrying,thedarkshadowofuncertaintywhichshe intuitedaboutherimmediatefateshowedonherface.35Thatintuitiontoldherthatthingsweredictatedtoturnoutacertainway.Therewasnodeviationfromthatdictate.She feltthatshehadnothingstrongonwhichtosupportherself,andthatshehadtoliveherlifelikealittlestone,beingkickedalongbysomeoneelse.36

ClearlyYukikodoesnotfeelincontrolofherlifehere,nordoesshefeelanycontrolispossibleinthefuture.Theyearningandnostalgiathatshefeelsforherformer, happierdaysinIndochinabringcomfortbutalsoquellanyaspirationsshemightdeveloptoimproveherpresentandfuture.Insteadofworkingtobetterhersituation, shesimplyindulgesinmemoriesofmorecheerfultimes.ThereaderisnotmeanttobecriticalofthisinYukiko;rather,oneistopityandsympathizewithher. Afewpagesaftertheabovepassage,YukikomeetsJoe,aforeignerwithwhomshehasashortloveaffair.ShemeetshimwhilesheistakingawalkinShinjuku,and interpretstheserendipitousnatureoftheirmeetingasatwistoffate: YukikowenttoShinjukuwithnoparticularmotiveinmind.Acoldwindblewintheevening.Withtheroadsidestallsandmostoftheotherstoresallclosedup,Shinjukuwaslikea lonelydesertedtown.Shetriedherbesttowalkalongasifshehadsomebusinessthere,butitleftherfeelingquitedissatisfied.SheconsideredgoingbacktoShizuoka,butseeing asshehadgottenherselfthelittleshacktolivein,shealsowonderedifitwouldn'tbebestforhertostartanewlifefromthatshack.ShehadwalkedasfarastheIsetandepartment storewhenshewascalledoverbyatallforeigner.Heaskedherwhereshewasgoing,butbecauseshehadbeenaskedsoabruptly,Yukikomerelysmiledandstoodstill.The foreignermatchedherstrideandwalkedwithher.Yukikogrewbold.Theforeignerbabbledalongamileaminute,butYukikoremainedsilentandleanedupagainsthisbodyas theywalkedalong.Shefeltthatherfatewasslowlybutsurelytakingaturninanewdirection.37

Joebecomesherloverandvisitsheroften,bringingsmallgiftswhenhedoes.HeiskindandYukikoenjoyshiscompany,butthelanguagebarrierpreventsherfrom trulyfallinginlovewithhim.Still,Joe'sappearanceinherlifeisapositivesigntoher;itisagiftthatfatebestowedonherwhenshewasdownandout.Herpassive acceptanceofhiscompanionship,exemplifiedinthepassageabovewhenshesilentlyleansagainsthim,issymptomaticofherpassiveacceptanceofmanyeventsinher life.Yukikodoesshowsomesignsofpersonalvolition,suchasinthescenewhereshedecidestoleaveTomiokabehindintheresortof

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IkahoandtocontinuewithherownlifeinTokyo.Butthesescenesareovershadowedbythosethatdisplayawaveringofherwill,anirresolutionthatcausesherto changehermindandsurrendertofatemoreoftenthannot. WhenYukikoisfacedwiththenecessityoffindingsomesortofemploymenttosupportherself,shecannotdecidewhatsortofworktodo,andtheoptionsallseem bleak.Whileshemuses,sheidlyshakesapairofdicethatshefindssittingnearby: Yukikopickedupthedicewhichhadbeenthrownontopofthetableandshooktheminherhandforawhileasshesankdeepintoherownthoughts.Shecontemplatedwhatsort ofworksheshoulddo.Shehadlosthertalentforofficework.Andshecouldn'tbeawaitress.Becomingahousewifewasalsoanunpleasantthought.Shewouldstarveifshe didn'tfindsomesortofwork.Yukikoshookthediceasshewonderedwhatsortofworktochoose.38

Thespecterofchance,orfate,asmanifestedinthedice,hauntsYukiko'sthoughtsasshetriestomakeadecision.Itisasifanychoice,whethersheseemstomakeit ofherownwillornot,ispredestined.Again,thenarratorofDiaryofaVagabond,inthesamesituation(unemployment),decidesonajobrationally,notbythrowing dice,theimplicationbeingthatthedecisionisherstomake,itisnotpredetermined. Despiteeffortstobranchoffintheirowndirections,YukikoandTomiokaenduptogether,headedforYakuisland,intheconclusionofthestory.Yukikoisdying fromconsumption,andsheisresignedtohercondition.Shebecomessoweakthatshecannotcontinue,andshortlyafterthatshebreathesherlast.Tomiokais saddenedbyherdeath,butitseemstohimtofallnaturallyintosuccessionwiththerecentdeathsofhisformerlover,Osei,andhiswife,Kumiko.TomiokaandYukiko displaynocontroloverthetragiceventsthatleadtothelatter'sdeath;theyknowsheisveryill,buttheycontinuetravelingasifsomethingwaspreventingthemfrom othercoursesofaction. Thelastparagraphsumsupthefatalisticmetaphysicalovertonesofthenovel.TomiokahasjustattendedtoYukiko'sfuneral,andisfacedwitheitherreturningtoYaku IslandortoTokyo.Hedoesnothavetheenergytodealwiththeformeronhisown,butthelatterdoesnotofferanypotentialwayforhimtoearnhislivelihood: Tomiokathoughtabouthisowncondition,whichwasjustlikethatofadriftingcloud.Itwasadriftingcloudwhichcoulddisappearatanytime,inanyplace,withoutanyone knowingaboutit.39

HereFumikoasksthereader,Whatdoeslifematter?Whyfretoverdecisionsthatarepredestined?Shetellsusthatwecannotknowourfate,althoughitisset—all wecandoissufferwiththeknowledgethatwe

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havenocontrol.Indeed,whatdisturbsbothYukikoandTomiokamostaboutfateisitsquixoticnature.Thefactthatsomethingcouldhappen''anytime,inanyplace"is frightening,andthethreatoftheunknownhangsovertheentirenovel.Thatthreatgrowswiththeprogressionofthenarrativetothepointwhereitparalyzesthe charactersinastateofnonaction.Insteadofseeingaworldofpossibleopportunities,YukikoandTomiokaseeaworldofpossibledisasters. TheFalseSolaceofReligion InDriftingClouds,Fumikocriticizesorganizedreligion,which,asshedepictsit,providesafalsesenseofcontroloverone'sfate.WhenthemorallycorruptIbajoins areligiouscultandtriestoconvinceYukikothathehasfoundsalvationthroughhisfaith,Yukikoseesthatthesectisafraud,andthatIbaisgraspingatanychanceto rehabilitatehimselfafteralifeofdebauchery.FumikowritesIba'smonologuesonthesubjectofreligionwithcontemptanddisdain,andshemakesYukikounableto believewhatIbasaysaboutthegoodnessofthesect. IbagoestovisitYukikointhehospitalaftershehashadanabortion(thechildwasnothis—itwasTomioka's—butoutofcompassionforYukiko,hepaysforthe procedure),andwhileheistherehisreligiousrhetoricattractssomeoftheotherwomenintheward.Yukikoisappalledbyhisbehavior: Ibacametovisitheronthesecondday,butallhehadtoaskherwaswhenshewouldbewellandabletocomehelphim[withsecretarialduties].Yukikowasextremelyweak.Iba hadgivenhimselfovertotallytotheDainikkosect,andhewasboastingabouthowthemoneyforconstructioncostswasjustpouringinfromtheiraccountingoffice.40 ThewomenwhosebedswerelinedupalongsideYukiko'sinthehospitalroomwereinnotimedrawntowhatIbawassaying. LyingnexttothewallwasawomanclosetofortyyearsoldnamedOtsuShimo.Shesuddenlyblurtedout,"Woulditbepossibleformetojointheranksofthefaithful?" Otsuhaddisposedofachildshehadconceivedwithanoldermarriedman.Shehadnotspokenawordaboutitherself,butthenurse,MissMakita,hadsaidthatshewasan elementaryschoolteacherfromsomewherenearChiba.Shedidnotseemthetypetobecomeattachedlikethattosomeman.Shehadadarkcomplexionandwasheavyset,andshe wasratherformal. "ThisDainikkosect—istheleaderaman?" Ibagrinnedandsaid,"Ofcourse,heisaman,andamarvelousoneatthat.HestudiedinIndiaasayoungmanandhasplentyofvision.Hehassurmountedallsortsofobstacles, andhecametoJapan

Page148 toshinehislightinthewildernesshere.Heiswellknownasabraveman,thankstohislongstintwiththearmyinMalaysiaandBurma.Indifferenttimes,wewouldnotbeableto approachsuchaman.Please,comejoinus.Allyourdifficultieswillbeerased." "My!Sothefounderwasoriginallyasoldier?" "That'sright.He'sadischargedsoldier,whichmakeshimallthemoreinteresting.Fellowsstraightoutofthemilitarylikethisarenaturallyfullofenergy.Hecanbedownright highhandedwithanunrulymob..."Ibaloweredhisvoice,"He'sbuyingacarinmyname.He'sfootingtheentirebill,butI'minchargeofeverythingheowns..." "Howoldishe?" "Oh,aboutsixty­oneorsixty­two...He'sanamazingguy,saidtohavebeenwithoverahundredwomen.Hesaysthatplantsturntowardsthesun,nomatterwheretheygrow,so henamedthesectDainikkoafterthatenergyoflife.41We'vegotover100,000believersnow.Ithasthepotentialtogrowindefinitely.Hiscreedseemstobethatbystaying inconspicuous,wewillbeconspicuous." YukikofeltalittleuneasyathowIbahadchangedentirelyfromhisformerselfintowhatseemedlikeamangonetotallymad.Heseemedtohavenointerestwhatsoeverinherpast relationshipwithTomioka.Hejustwantedtotakeherintohisconfidenceashisprivatesecretary,tohireawomanwithwhomhehadhadrelationsinthepast.42

IbagoesontodescribetoOtsuShimohowmuchmoneysheneedstocontributeinordertobecomeamemberofthesect,andsheenthusiasticallyrespondsthatshe definitelywantstojoin.Hetellsherthatthesectdoesnothealphysicalailments,butratherpsychologicalailments;ineffect,hepromiseshappinessandanimproved life.Yukikoremainsunswayed,forsheknowsthatIbaissimplyrunningascam.IbaneverstopstalkingaboutthechurchandaboutGod,buthisinsincerityisobvious, asinthefollowingexchangebetweenhimandYukiko: "Ican'tsaythisveryloudly,butinthisworldthebestbusinessisreligion.Religionisthewaytosavepeople.Someincrediblylostsoulscometoheartheteachings.Allaroundus drugstoreshavesprungup,andthereisamapforusatthestation.43It'samazing.Thesepeopleallhappilypartwiththeirmoney.Religionhasthepowertokeeppeoplefrom begrudgingpayments.IsoldthathouseinSaginomiya,youknow.I'mbuyingthehouseofabankerinIkegami,andwe'lllivetogetherwiththesectleader—howgrand!Thehouse issortofoldfor3,500,000yen,butthebuildingis80tsubo,thegroundsare500tsubo,andthereisapondandahill."44 "Godwillmakeyoupayforthis." "God?Godonlylooksafterthosewithgoodluck.ThosewhoarenotcaughtinthenetofluckareofnointeresttoGod.Youknow,Iam

Page149 quitetakenwithyou.I'llbuyyouacozylittlehouseallyourown.Nomatterwhathappens,Iwasyourfirstman,andI'llneverforgetit..." Yukikofounditallrepulsive."45

Ibadoesnotbelievewhathepreachesandsells;hiscommentaboutluckindicatesthathetoosharesYukiko'sbeliefthatluckandfateareattheheartofone's existence.YukikowouldliketobelieveinthedoctrinesofIba'schurch—becausetheywouldbringthepsychologicalcomfortthateludesher—butshecannotbring herselftodoso.Onedaysheattendsoneoftheservices: Yukikosatdownonabenchandlistenedtotheparishionerssinging.Shetriedpressingherpalmstogetherandclosinghereyes,butherimpatiencetangledaroundherlikea stringandshecouldnotcalmdownintheleast.Therewasanadmirablebundleofmoneybeforehereyes.ButnowherearoundhercouldbeseentheimageofGod.Andshecould notseetheetherthatIbawasconsuming.46Godwasnowhere.47

Itishopeless;YukikocannotbelieveinGod.Insteadshebelievesin"fate,"whichisfacelessandindistinct.Itisthisfate—theconceptionofwhichremainsconveniently indistinctinhermind—thatdictatesherfuture,notGod.Thevaguenessof"fate"makesitintangible,andironicallythatgivesYukikomorefaithinit.Inotherwords,an incomprehensiblepowerismoreacceptablethanacomprehensibleone.Asmentionedinchapter1,Fumikolikedtheideaoffaithbutshedidnotadheretoany organizedreligiousdoctrine.Suchdoctrinesweretoocomplex,toological,andtoostructuredforhertofindthemappealing.Thus,bothFumiko'searlyvaguefaithin theindividual'sfreewill,andherlaterfaithinasortofdeterministicfateweretolerableformsofreligionforher. DiaryofaVagabondandmostoftheearlierworksespousedasortof"liveandletlive"policy:itwasfineforotherstofollowareligionorpoliticalphilosophyaslong astheprotagonistwasleftalone.ButanumberofshortstorieswrittenneartheendofFumiko'slifeabandonthisposture;rather,theydirectlycriticizeman'sattemptto comprehendandcontrolhislifeandenvironment.ForFumikoatthistime,itwasnolongerappropriatetoblithelyignorecomplexphilosophies;nowshedeclaredthat thesehumanconstructswerenottobetrusted.Mostnotableofthesestoriesisacollectionofchildren'sstoriespublishedunderthetitleKitsunemonogatari(The Fox'sTale,1947),whichincludes"Tsurunofue"(TheCrane'sFlute),"Kame­san"(Mr.Turtle),"Hiramenogakko''(TheFlounder'sSchool),"Fukurono dairyoko"(TheOwl'sBigJourney),and"Kitsunemonogatari"(TheFox'sTale).48InthetraditionofAesop'sfables,thesestoriesuseanthropomorphizedanimalsto illustratesomeviceofhumannature.Althoughthescenarios

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aredifferent,theyallcriticizesomesortofcomplexhumanpsychologicalconstructandimplythatasimplisticapproachtolifewouldbebetter.Yukiko'scriticismof Iba'ssectalsofallsalongtheselines:thoseinvolvedinorganizedreligion,shefeels,aretryingtobuildconstructstostructuretheirliveswheninrealitythereisno controllingone'sfate.Itwouldbebestforthemtoacknowledgethatfactandlivetheirlivessimply,withoutcomplicatingthemwithfalsecodesofconductandbogus beliefs. Ultimately,Fumikotellsherreadersthatthesolaceonemayfindinorganizedreligionorphilosophyisfalse.Itispresumptuousofmantoclaimanunderstandingor comprehensionoftheworld,foritisnothistounderstand,muchlesscontrol.Itisbest,sheimplies(moreinthechildren'sstoriesthananywhereelse),formanto remainmeek,passive,andrelativelyignorant. Fumiko'sThoughtsonDeath ThejoythatFumikotookinwritingasayoungwomanallbutdisappearedinhermiddleage.Writingbecameachore,somethingshedid,itseems,moreoutofhabit thandesire.Whilethequalityofwhatsheproduceddidnotnoticeablysuffer—ifanythingherabilitytodevelopcharactersandstructureplotsbecamebetterafterthe war—theauthorherselfbecomeincreasinglydepressedabouttheephemeralnatureofawriter'spopularity.Shewroteaboutthesefeelingsinanessayentitled"Yashi nomi"(Coconut,1949),originallypublishedinacollectionofshortstoriesentitledBeef."Coconut"ramblesabit,buttherearepassagesinwhichFumikotalkslucidly aboutthefutilityofwriting.Theopeningtwoparagraphsareonesuchpassage: Writingnovelshasbecomequitetiresomeoflate.Andit'snotjustbecauseI'mgettingold.Ihaveworndownmyfishinghookforideasoverthecourseofmytwenty­yearliterary career.SometimesIsitinfrontofthebrazier,roastingdriedsardines,andIthinkhowniceitwouldbetojustenjoyapeacefullifewithacupofsakeinmyhand.WhenIwasyoung Iwasundertheillusionthatmyworkswouldliveonintheworldaftermydeath,butmythoughtsonthathavechangedentirely.It'snotjustlimitedtomyworks;nobody'sworks survive.Thetimesnowareevenmorerushedthantoday'spopularnovels,everythinghasbecomesofast­paced.Whatiswrittentodayisoldnewstomorrow.Allonecandois spendlifelyinglowinobscurity.Acertainideawhichwasthehottestthingrightafterthewarhasnowgraduallygrownold.Andwe,likepotatoes,overthecourseoftheyears, graduallyhaveourskinpeeledaway.Idonotknowifthereisanythingtothisworldofman;nothingbutvast,vacantthoughtsoccupyme

Page151 eachday,darklystagnatinginmyheart.Irealizethatman'sdestinationisnoneotherthanthecryptofanarchy. AsIsitidleatmydeskmyfishinghookfailstocatchanyfish.EverydayIgreetanumberofvisitors,anditmakesmelosemybearings.Iimagineputtingasignoutonthegate— whatshoulditsay?"TemporarilyClosed"?"InMourning"?ThetruthisthatIcannotforthelifeofmefindtheurgetowrite.There'snopointinslavingawaytowritesomething whichwillnotsurviveafterI'mgone.Idreamaboutowningasmallinn—toearnjustenoughincometoputfoodonthetable—whereIcouldsitatthefrontdeskwithmydried sardinesanddrink.Itwouldn'tbeabadliving.Itwouldn'tbesobadtotakeinsomegaspingauthorwhohadundertakentowritesevenoreightdifferentserializednovels,and thensqueezeeverylastcentoutofhim.SucharemythoughtsasIsitgrinningatmydesk.49

ThecynicismandintemperanceinthispassageisquiteuncharacteristicofanythingFumikohadwrittenbefore.Sheridiculesherselfwhensheimaginesmaltreatingan authorwhotookontoomanyserializationcontracts(sheherselfwasnotoriousforworkingonanumberofmanuscriptsatonce).Thelossofseveralofherfriendsand contemporariesalsomadeherreflectondeathinsomedepth: Ihavelostninefriendswhowereauthorsinthepastfewyears:HasegawaShigure,TokudaShusei*,YadaTsuseko,KataokaTeppei,TakedaRintaro,OdaSakunosuke,Dazai Osamu,KikuchiKan,andYokomitsuRiichi.50Everyoneofthesepeoplewaskindtome.Mymemoriesofthemaresweet.Thesewritershaveleftbehindquiteafewworks,sothe limp,helplessfeelingIhavethatnotoneoftheirworkssurvivesisperhapsduetomyowntwistedframeofmind.Iwouldliketodrinkashoofsakeandquietlyspeakthetruthto myself.51InMasaokaShiki'sOneDropofInkthereisthefrighteningline,"Asanexperiment,IplaceanumberofpoisonsbymybedsidetoseeifIwilldrinkthemornot."52To drinkthemornot...Iamacoward,andtheseinwardthoughtsofShiki'sterrifymesoasIsitatmydesklateatnight,thinking. SometimesIgetseriousandthinkaboutmyowndeath.Whenmylifeends,well,thatwillbetheendofme.Ishallregretit,butthatregretwillonlyexistuntilthemomentofdeath, andonceIamdeadIsuspectitwillfleeatfullspeedtothedarkunderworld.Andallmyabhorrenceoflifewilldisappear.Forashortwhile,Ishallbefondlyrememberedbymy friendsandacquaintances.IabsolutelydeclinetohaveanepitaphlikeStendahl's"Helived,hewrote,heloved."53Ithinkthat,atthetimeofmydeath,I'dlikethepoliceorthetax officetobenotifiedthateverythingI'vewrittenwillceasetobeprintedfromthatdayforward.Ithinkitoddthatthepowerofworksbydeadauthorscanexceedthatoflive authors.WhatI'mtryingtosayisthattheworksofdeadauthorsshouldnotcontinueonthroughtheageslikeancientalmanacs.

Page152 Nomatterhowpoorthewriter,readingworksbyalivingauthorbringsoutthelifeinme.Igetterriblydepressedreadingworksbydeadauthors,andIcannotgettheirimagesout ofmymind.Ontopofthattheirthemesseemtofadewithage.PerhapsitisduetothefactthatIwritenovels,butinadditiontothefeelingthattoday'snovelsarebeingrapidly outpacedbythetimes,IfeelanunbearableirritationwhenIreaddeadauthors'works.Nevertheless,IknowthatthenovelsbyTokudaShusei*andOdaSakunosukethatIhave beenreadingrecentlyarenotintheleastbitantiquated.Amongtheseninerecentlydeceasedauthors,therearesomewhohavenotbeenreadatallsincetheendofthewar.And whileitiscruel,thestringthatconnectsthememoryoftheseauthorswiththepresentdayhasbeencompletelysevered.Thereissimplynothingtobedoneaboutit.54

Althoughshecontradictsherselfandseemsunabletomakeacoherentstatement,Fumiko'smainpointhereisclear;shehaslittlefaithintheabilityofaliteraryworkto standthetestoftime.Thisfeelingwasapparentlymostlybasedonherownreactionswhenshereadnovels,notanobjectiveobservationoftheworldofJapanese literature.(Theideathatanyauthor'sworksrapidlybecomearcaneafterthewriter'sdeathisabsurdatbest.)Inanycase,sheknewthatshehadonlyalittlelongerto live,andtheideathatherworkswouldfadequicklyafterherdeathfilledherwithgloom.Still,thereisonepassagein"Coconut"thatshowsshehadnottotallylosther willtolive: Forthesakeofwritingnovels,Iwanttotraveleverywhereandanywhere.IhaveafeelingthatIonlyhaveafewyearslefttolive....55I'vebeenthinkingaboutgoingtoSouth Americalately,andI'vetakentodaydreamingasIlookatamapoftheworld.56

Theline"forthesakeofnovels"isathrowbacktoherpast,whentravelprovidedhernotonlywithsettingsbutalsowiththenostalgiawhichwassocentraltoher fiction.Inreality,dreamingoftravelwasbutapleasantdistraction,forbythetimeFumiko,wrote"Coconut"shewastooweaktomakeamajortripofanykind. Whetherajourneywouldaidherinwritinganovelorsimplyaggravatethefeelingshehadthatherwritingcareerwasoverissomethingthatshewouldneverfindout. Bytheendofherlife,Fumikowasawomanstrippedofeverythingthathadmadelivingworthwhile.Shecouldnottravelanylonger,andwithouttravel,itwasmore difficulttoputherselfinsituationsthatbroughtaboutthenostalgiashesotreasured;heremotionalneedtolongforsomethingcouldnolongerbefocusedonaphysical place("home").Norcouldthatneedbefocusedonautopianexistencewhereshewaslefttodoasshepleased(asithadbeeninheryouth),forshehadachievedthat objectiveasmuchasanyonecanwhenshebecameanestablished,independent,wealthywriter.Whatwastherelefttolong

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for?Fumiko'sanswerwasdevastating:Nothingshouldbelongedfor,becauseonehadnocontroloverone'sfate.Longingforsomethingthatonecouldnotachieve broughtnopleasure,onlyafeelingofhelplessness.Andwiththatfeelingofhelplessnesscamediscouragement,despair,andresignation.Itisperhapssurprisingthat Fumikocontinuedwriting,insteadofgivingupaltogether,althoughIthinkthatwritinghadbecomesuchanintegralpartofherwayoflifethattheideaofstopping wouldneverhaveoccurredtoher.This,plusthefactthatshe,likemostwriters,neededtowriteinordertoconcretizeideasandtounderstandtheworld,kepther writinguntilherdeathin1951attheageofforty­eight.

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Conclusion HayashiFumiko'sprovenancehelpedlaunchhertofame,butevenwithouttheserendipitousreceptionofDiaryofaVagabond,shewouldhaveeventuallymadeher mark.Byprovidingheraudiencewithbreezyinterpretationsofeventhemostsqualidsituations,shewasfillingthegapleftbyhercontemporaries,whowerebusy focusingeitheronthenatureoftheirownindividualityortheplightoftheworkingclassinanewlyindustrializedJapan.FumikoshowedthatWesterninfluenceinthe modernagedidnotneedtobringangsttotheJapanese,forsheproducedDiaryofaVagabondbasedonaWesternmodel,withaprotagonistwholivedina WesternizedTokyobutwhowasnotdauntedbyexistentialepistemologicalorsocialconcerns.Althoughshedidaskherselfwhatthenatureofliteratureshouldbe,she didnotdwelluponthisquestionwithinherworksthemselves. AlthoughimmediatelyfollowingthepublicationofDiaryofaVagabondFumiko'snovelssufferedfromproblemsofstructureandcharacterization,hershortstories intimatedanabilitytoproduceoutstandingwork.Thecharactersinthesestorieswerethree­dimensional,andlivedaworldfamiliartomuchofheraudience.She portrayedthemspeakingandacting,notcontemplativeandimmobile,andalthoughshenevermentioneditinheressaysonwriting,itisclearshesubscribedtothe "show"(andnotthe"tell")schoolofexpression.Shecreatedrolemodelsforotheryouthsborninpoverty,andshowedthatone'soriginsneednotdictateone'ssuccess orfailureinlife.Throughoutherentirecareer,sheremainedanonconfrontationalauthor,avoidingtheacademiccontroversiesthatdividedmanyofhercolleagues;in thefewcasesinwhichshewascriticizedfornotfollowingsomedictate,asinthecriticismthatDiaryofaVagabondwasnotproperlumpenliterature,shesimply deniedanydidacticorhomileticalintent. Moreover,Fumikodidnotdepictabjectpovertyforitsshockvalue.Shereveledintheideaofcreating"theliteratureofpoverty,"butnotbecauseshesawitas expressiveofaninequalityorinjustice.Quitetothecontrary,the"literatureofpoverty"wasabeautifulthingthataddressedherchildhoodandconcretizedtheabstract imagesinhermindfromthattime,helpinghercomprehendandappreciatethemfurther.Sheresentedthosecriticswhoinsistedoncategorizingherasaleftist

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writer,forshefeltpoliticizationdetractedfromliterature'spureressenceandpreventedonefromarrivingatman'struenature.Herchoiceofroughvocabulary, extensiveuseofdialect,andrelentlesshonestyinshowinglifewithallitsscarswassimplysecondnaturetoher.Itwastheworldsheknew,andtheonlyonethatshe wascapableofdepicting. AlthoughFumikoiscertainlyoneofthemostprominent"womenwriters"oftheearlyandmid­twentiethcentury,thereisnodirectevidencethatsheintendedherselfto beamajoractorinthefeministmovementofthetime.Shepublishedinsomeoftheperiodicalsconsidered"women'smagazines,"suchasWomenandtheArtsand Housewife'sFriend,butthisinitselfdoesnotplaceherinthefeministcamp.Truetohertendencytoavoidpoliticaldiscussions,nowhereinheressaysdoesshe mentionfeminismasapoliticalaction.However,theexampleshesetinherownlifecouldnotbutbeaninspirationtootherwomenofthetime;shehadaflourishing career,fame,fortune,andahappymarriage.Andherliterarycharacters,althoughoftennotassuccessfulastheircreator,tendtodisregardthesocialandcultural restraintspreventingthemfrompursuingtheirdreams.Traditionmeanslittleifanythingtothem,andtheyquestionsocialobligationsasapparentlyarbitraryand nonsensical.BothFumikoandhercharacterswerefundamentallypragmatic,andoftenchosethemostcommonsensicalpathtotheirgoals. Thedesireonefeelsintheprocessofachievingone'sgoalswasacentralthemeinFumiko'slifeandherworks,athemethatreflectsthetraditionalaestheticoflonging. Fumikosoughttoenhanceherownsenseofdesirebyseparatingherselffromthefamiliarinordertoaccentuatethelonging.Desireinspiredhertoact,nottoruminate. Likewise,hercharactershaveconcretegoalsintheirlives;theydonotmentallywanderaroundthenarrative,contemplatingtheirexistence.Fumikoassociatedher longingwithtravel,whichwasanintegralpartofherlife,somuchsothatherexpressionoflongingandlonelinessisusuallycouchedintermsoftheemotionsrelatedto traveling.Ifshehadbeenconfinedtooneregionoftheworld,orofJapan,duringherlife,thenatureofherliteraturewouldhavebeendramaticallychanged.Asitis, hercharactersareconstantlymovingbothmentallyandphysically,reflectingtheauthor'ssearchforhappiness,contentment,andnostalgia. Theturnattheendofherlifefromoptimistictopessimisticthemesstillmaintainedmuchofherearlierstyle.Hercharacters,suchasYukikoinDriftingClouds,still striveforgoals,stilltravelinsearchofthosegoals,andstillcomefromthelowerclasses.Themaindifferenceisintheirattitudestowardtheefficacyoftheirown actions.ThischangemayhavebeenanaturalreactiononFumiko'sparttoadvancingageanddeterioratinghealth;goneweretheinspirationsofyouth,thedeprivations thatspurredherinitialworks,andthechallengeofovercoming

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hersocialandeconomicbackground.Shehadafinehome,alovinghusbandandson,financialsecurity,andacceptanceinthebundan.Therewaslittleleftforwhich toyearn,yetshehadsoaccustomedherselftoworkingatanalmostinhumanpacethatslowingorquittingaltogetherwasimpossible.Eventhoughherlastworksare oftenconsideredherbest,heressaysshowusthatattheendofherlifeshefeltderisivetowardherwork,andmusedaboutleavingitbehind. ThepublicmemoryofHayashiFumikowillprobablyrestonthereputationsheestablishedwithDiaryofaVagabond:thepooryoungwomanlivinginstraitened circumstances.Initially,thisseemedashametome,fortherewassomuchmoretothewriterandherworks.Inretrospect,however,itwouldseemthatshewould havewanteditthatway,foritwasthevaluessheestablishedinherearlylifewithwhichshemoststronglyassociated.

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Appendix ThefollowingaretranslationsofthreeessaysbyHayashiFumiko,"WatashinoChiheisen"(MyHorizon,1931),"Bungaku,Tabi,SonoTa"(Literature,Travel,Etc., 1936),and"WatashinoShigoto"(MyWork,1937).

MyHorizon1 Alongtimeago,acertainwomancriticcommentedonmyworkinthefollowingway: BecauseIhavecriticizedHayashiFumiko'sworks(mostnotablyDiaryofaVagabond)aslumpenpieces,therearemanypeoplewhothinkthatIspeakslightinglyofherartistry. Certainly,Fumiko'sworkslackvolition.Despitethefactthatherworksarestuddedthroughoutwithpoemsthatshinelikegemsamidsttheprose,theylackthepowerofreal­life situations.Forthisreasonherworksare,asfarasproletarianliteratureisconcerned,second­rate.

Ireadhercriticismwithdeepshame.Shesaysthatmyworklacksvolition,butthatisprobablyduetothefactthatinthisparticularcase[DiaryofaVagabond]Iwas writingapiecethatdoesnotfollowinthepathofproletarianliterature.IneverputupasignadvertisingDiaryofaVagabondasanyparticulartypeofliterature,or belongingtoanycertainartisticschool.Indeed,thismustbewhyshesaidthatitlacksvolition.Butthen,justwhatisvolition? Shemayconsidermyworktobe"second­rateproletarianliterature,"butIhavenevercarriedtheproletarianbanner;itispreciselyproletarianliteraturethatIoppose. Furthermore,astohersayingthatmyworkslackthepowerofreal­lifesituations,Iwouldliketothrowthesewordsrightbackather.Thelandscapewithinone person'sheldofvisionisnotrepresentativeofthatineveryone'sfieldofvision.Iwritewiththeintentionofcomingtogripswithreallifeasitappearstomepersonally.I oftendiscoverstrangewordsinmysentences.Icomposeextremelyrawnihilismbetweenthelines.Perhapsasaresult,myworkissometimesseenaslumpen literature,orliteraturethatlacksvolition,orliteraturethatrunsawayfromreality.

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ImustconfessthatIamaproponentofnihilism.ThusIdonotfollowthelatesttrendlikeeverybodyelse,nordoIsuddenlychangemymindaboutthings.Tothisday, Ihaveneverstolensomeoneelse'sstyle.Togiveawayone'scarefullytemperedthoughtsissimplytothrowpearlstoswine.IregardtheideaswhichIstruggledto produceasmychastity,andIwillnotprostitutethattoanybody.Thus,Ishallnevercallmyownworksproletarianliterature.Neither,ofcourse,willIlabelthemas partofanygivenliteraryschool.Menofletters,asspokesmenofsociety,areabletocreateworksfromeverypointofviewforeverycause,butIfearthattheword "spokesman"willneverapplytosomeoneuneducatedlikemyself. Intheearly1920s,duringthetimethatIoftenvisitedOsugiSakaeathishome,Iwasconstantlythinkingaboutpoliticalmovementsandart;sleepingorwaking,my mindwasburstingwithideas.2 IfIhadnottheslightesttalentasawriteroranyloveofthearts,perhapsIwouldhavejoinedtheranksoftheproletarianmovement longago.WhenIwasayoungwoman—perhapsevennow—therewasanextremelysavageprogressivequalitytomyemotions.Ihadanaiveobstinacyandpaidno attentiontoanythingbesideswhatIwantedtodomyself.Tothisday,Imaintainthesamelifestyleandmyworkisthusforcedtobearthenameoflumpenliterature.I willlivetherestofmylifebytheideasthatarebornbymyactions.Inthefuture,myworkwilldoubtlessreceivemanydifferentkindsofshocks,butatthosetimes,I willresteasynotimitatingothers.Rather,myworkwillflourishbyvirtueofthethingsthatIchoosetodomyself. Theterm"proletarianliterature"inJapanesereallymeans"theliteratureofpoverty."Ifonetalksabouttheliteratureofpoverty,thenmyworkscertainlyfitintothat category.Theforeignword"proletarian"reeksoftheintelligentsiaandideology.Buttheliteratureofpoverty!Inallitsmeanings,myworkistheliteratureofpoverty. ThankgoodnessfortheJapaneselanguage!Buttheterm"literatureofpoverty"alsohasalumpen­esqequality.Themagicalspelloflanguagecausesastrangechasm inmeaningincasessuchasthese. UpuntilnowIhavewrittenmyworkintheformofprose.Imakemuchuseofkatakanainmysentences;Iconveymyvolitionwiththesephoneticmarkings,using themtostrengthenthereader'seye.Katakanaisusuallyusedsolelyasaglosstoindicatethereadingofaforeignword,butinmycase,themoredifficultwordsthere areinasentence,themoreIhavetriedtowritethemjustusingkatakana.PerhapsitisbecauseIbeganbywritingpoems,orperhapsitisbecausemyeyesbecome sotiredwhenthecharactersarepackedcloselyonthepage,butinanycase

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thosediacriticalmarksthatnormallyappearbetweenthelinesinothertextsendupinthemainbodyofmyworks.3 Whydidmywritingbecomethisway?Once,whenIheldmanydifferentjobs,Iwantedtowritedownmanydifferentthoughts.Butwhenonehasajob,readingand writingcanbecomedifficult.Duringsuchdifficulttimes,evenifIwasexhausted,Istillwantedtowritesomething—Icouldn'tstanditifIdidn'twrite.Ithenexpressed thispent­upemotionintheformofpoemsandprose. RecentlyIhavebeenreadingYokomitsuRiichi'swork.Thereisnospacebetweenhiswords,norwastedbreathbetweenhissentences.Iwastireduponthefirst reading.UponthesecondreadingIfeltasortofattractiontowardhiswork,andbythethirdreadingIhadgreatrespectforhisstyle.Yokomitsu'sstyleissomething thatIcouldnotachieveevenifItriedoverthecourseofdecades.Iwonderifthereisanybodyintheworldofproletarianliteraturewhohassuchafirmlyrootedstyle? Ihavethoughtoftryingtowritemy''literatureofpoverty"inthissortofdensestyle,usingmuchhiragana,butformeitisstillquiteadifficulttask. OnceIfallunderthespelloflanguage,Iceasetobeabletowrite—pushedbyaprogressiveurge—likeIdidbefore.OzakiAkiracalledmywork"literatureofthe soul,"atermthatIgratefullyaccept. Iwanttousemyownstyletodescribemyownperceptionofreality.Mygoalistoreachmanyreaders.Thereareprobablymanywriterswhowouldfeelsatisfiedif justoneortworeadersunderstoodwhattheywrote,butIamnotoneofthem.Imusttargetalargeaudience.Evenproletarianwriterswritedry,highbrownovelsthat aredifficultforevenacollegegraduatetounderstand.Theirmessageprobablygoesrightovertheirreader'shead.Thegreatnumberofthosewhoproduceworksthat areexactlylikeadvertisements,worksthatonewouldnotwanttoreadmorethanonce,areproletarianwriterswhowantsolelytoconveytheirideastotheirfew colleagues,andonehasthefeelingthatthereisnotoneheart­feltemotionintheirwork.Themedialovestheproletarianwriters,butfromthosewriters'drivetowrite comesacommercialismandcorruptionthatresultsinworkthatfailstodrawreaders. ItisbecauseIbelievethisthatIreadKobayashiTakiji'sworkwithreverence.4 Theauthorisnotheroicinhisworknorishepompous.Kobayashi'sworksarepieces ofliteraturethatanybodycanunderstandandtheyhaveacertainfreshnessnomatterwhichoneonereads.RecentlyIhavealsobeenreadingBalzacandrereading Chekhov.Imaynotunderstandtheirdifficultideas,butIenjoytheirworks.IthinkthisisbecauseinbothBalzac'sandChekhov'sworksthereisanelementofreality thatdoesnotmakefunofthereader.WhenIreadanovelthathasthissortofquality,IfeellikeI'vestruckwaterinthedesert.Suchan

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experienceleadsmetothinkthatproletarianromanticistliteraturemightbeallright.5 Ontheotherhand,Icouldn'twriteproletarianpoliticalliteratureevenifI turnedsomersaults.6 IwanttowriteseriouslyabouttheworldIcomefrom—theworldofpoverty—inaverynostalgicstyle.IfIcandothiswell,Iwillhavefulfilledmyroleinlife.The worldofliteraryrobotspainsme.Roboticworksdonotsuitme.7 Bornahumanbeing,IamhappyifIcanwriteaboutthepainofhumansandthenostalgiaofthe times.Idistancemyselffromloftyschoolsofthought,andItrytoridethroughlifeonthestrengthofmyconvictionsandenthusiasm. AsIamexposedtovariousideologies,inmyignoranceIoftenparalyzemyselfbybeingtoodemandingofthem.IfIdon'tunderstandanideaafterhearingthe discourseahundredtimes,itdrivesmetoproducesomethingfromwithinmyheartwhichgraspsrealityinawaythatthediscoursedoesnot.Althoughtheresultmay beabsurd,Iendeavortodoso. Iamtrulyinaconfusedstate. May1931

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Literature,Travel,etc.8 ItmaysoundstrangetosaythatatthetenderageofthirtyIwanttopursuethesimplerthingsinlife,butIholdthemysteryofmothernaturedearandgraduallyhave cometofindworldlythingsdistasteful.LatelyIhavebeenenjoyingreadingthepoemsofHanShan.9 PerhapsIaminfatuatedwithescapistliterature.Ilikethe followingpoem: Inthisworldtherearepeopleofmanyaffairs, Widelylearnedinallsortsofknowledgeandviews Buttheydon'tknowtheiroriginaltruenatures; ThustheyareturnedfromandfarfromtheWay. Iftheycouldunderstandthetruework, Forwhatusethisdisplayoffalsehopes? Withonethoughtunderstandyourownmind, AndyouopentheBuddha'sknowledgeandviews.10

WheneverIseeallthemultitalented,busypeoplearoundme,Ispitefullyrecallthispoem.LatelyIhavetakentotravelingalonewheneverIhavethetime.SinceI professthateverydayfamilylifeneedsbutabitofkomemiso,Ihavenodesiretobuildanexpensivehouse.ItisenoughformeifIcanlivemylifebyworkingabit hereandplayingabitthere.11TherearepeoplewhotellmethatIshouldthinkaboutbuildingmyownhouseandsettlingdown,butIhatetheideaofbuildingahouse oramassingwealth.Thefeelingoneexperienceswhilebuildingahouseandthefeelingoneexperiencesoncethehouseiscompletedarebothtroublesome.Ithinkit wouldbeoddforsomeonelikeme,whoisalwaysrunningaboutandwhocanbarelyaffordtobuyoneortwopillar­beams,tobuildalittlemodernhouse.Peoplewho canrelaxaftertheybuildtheirownhousearequiterare.Ithinkthatafteroneortwoyearshavepassed,theyprobablygetfedupwithitallandcan'tstandtobearthe burdenanymore.WheneverIstartplanningtobuildahouse,Iendupspendingallthemoneyontravel. UpuntilthispointintimeIhavehadnoproblemslivingmylifethewayIwantto—itisperhapsbecauseofthisthatIcansaythis—andIenjoybeingsemiliterate;this enjoymenthasmademewhatIam.RightnowIsupportmyselfbywritingnovels.AlthoughIstillcannotbelievethatsomeonelikeme,withmediocretalentsandpoor education,cansupportherselfwritingnovels,Ifindthatuncertaintyindescribablyenjoyable.Myhealthandmygoodnaturearesecondtonone.Alongtimeago,Iwas knowntosleepinabandonedhouses,andsleptwellevenwhenIsleptondirtfloors.EvennowIrarelycatchcoldevenwhenI'mwearingthinclothing,andIthink nothingofstayingupallnightfortwo

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orthreedaysatatime.OnceIsetinonmywork,Ican'teatathing;allIcandoisdiligentlyfacethepaperbeforeme.Butperhapsthisstateofbeingisonethatonly otherwriterscanunderstand.Howpleasingitis!Writinganovelisaspleasingashavingone'sloverwaitingforone.I'veenjoyedreadingsinceIwasachild,anditis becauseofthispleasurethatIhaveenduredthisfar,notdoingmyselfin.IamatrueoptimistandIhategloomythings;despitethat,Idedicatemyselftoloneliness.I feelIhavecomethisfarthroughthehungerandlongingIhaveforliterature.Evennow,mygoalsareconstanthungerandconstantlonging.I'mnotveryfondoftrying outnewthingswithotherpeople.Ithinkthat,onceI'mthirty­fiveyearsold,itwouldbenicetoretreattothemountainsandstarevacantlyatthesky.Then,Ithinkthat Iwouldsurelysummongreatstrengthtowork.Iamsofullofambitionthatmyselfishnessbordersonbeingdisgusting.Mywork,whichhasnodefiniteobject,takes twoforms:newspapernovelsanddiaries.12I'vebeenkeepingadiaryforaboutfiveyearsnow.Ikeeptowritingonepageeverydayformynewspapernovel, althoughtherearedayswhenImanagetowritethreeorfourpages.Icannotsimplyloungeaboutuntilthemoodtowritestrikesme,likethewritersofoldwoulddo. Loungingaboutwouldmakemestupid.Thereisnopointinimposingstupidityuponstupidity. Nomatterhowdifficultitmaybe,Imakeitapointtositmyselfdownatmydeskatleastonceadayinanefforttogrowaccustomedtosucharoutine.Forsomeone ofmediocreability,thereisnorecoursebuthardwork.I'veheardthatthetennisstarMoodyoncetooktwoyearsoffinordertorecuperate,andthenoncehaving donesoshewasonceagainverycompetitive,butIthinkthatsuchalonghiatuswouldnotbeappropriateforanovelist.13Ifawriterworksbrieflyandthentakesa longbreak—perhapsatwo­orthree­daytrip—withoutconstantlyobservingtheworldandconstantlythinkingaboutit,thenwhenitcomestimeto"compete,"shewill endupstaringvacantlyintospace.Geniuswasspokenofinthetimesbeforeculturaldevelopment,butnowresolutecommonsenseiswhatittakes.Thisistrueforany roadonechoosestofollow.ItisnotgeniusthatIcovetnow;rather,Ilongforcorrectrecognitiononaroadofplentifulcommonsense. IrespectpeoplelikeBashowhowasfullofcommonsense.Hewasindifferenttoworldlygain,andhadacharacterthatwaspureandpenetratedbyasplendid emptiness.HistasteforthesimpleandquietthingsinliferevealshisinnerspiritandisrepresentativeofthesametasteforsuchthingsthatallJapanesehavewithin ourselves.14Whenhesetoffonhistriptothenorth,hewasappreciativeofbutembarrassedbyallthefarewellgiftsthathisneighborsgavehim.Forhim,itwasquite awkwardthatthingshadcometothat. AlthoughIsaidthatIcovetloneliness,Icannotremainindifferent

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toworldlygain.Idon'twanttobuildahomeoramasswealth,butIdowanttotraveltomyheart'scontentandIdon'twanttoworryaboutbeingabletosupplymy familywithkomemiso.15Ihavefinallypaidoffmyfinancialdebts.GoodworkandgoodtravelarewhatIlongfor.IwanttogotoIndia.IwanttogotoChina.And ofcoursethereisFrance,too.ThenostalgiathatIfeelwhenI'minforeignlandsissoenjoyablethatIcoulddie.It'senoughtomakemespenddaysdaydreaming aboutJapan'sbeautyandlongingformyhome.TheJapaneselanguageisespeciallyverygood.InFrench,simplewordslikenonorouiareusedbyeverybody.Butin Japan,evensimplewordslikeyesandnoareexpressedinmyriadways.Thephrase"horetayowamijayurushanse,nushitoukinamomiyogajato"isfullof vibrantandbeautifulwords;Japaneseisalanguageinferiortonone.16 Ihavecometoenjoycomposingpoemsandsongsuponmyreturnhomefromfaraway.Awhileback,whenIwasoffhikingbymyselfnearthegreatwaterfallinthe mountainpassbetweentheregionsofMusashiandSagami,Ihadtheuncontrollableurgetosing.17ThenewKoshuroadtoYosewindsalongthevalleys,andIcould hearthebabblingofthenearbyriver.Lookingdown,Isawtheluxuriantandbushytopsofthecedartreesallinarow,andIcouldseetheTodaniandAshigara mountainranges. Thewaterfall Cloudsintheshadeoftreesinamountainpass Crawlalongthebaseofthepine­coveredcliff

Ithinkthisisanoddpoem,butitisthegenuinearticlethatsprungforthfrommysoulwhileIwasupinthemountains,soeventhoughitisratherwarpeditisstill adorable.RecitingthispoemaboutawaterfallremindsmeofapoembyYosanoAkiko: AwaterfallscattersintomistinthemountainsofKaigane ThecrimsonleavesofthecherrytreesatObananotai

Whatasplendidverse,endowedwithsuchcharacter!ItisclearlyAkiko'swork,andIhavecommittedittomemory,alongwiththefollowingpoem: Thetatamiofamountainvillaandthe mountainsinKaiprovinceallinarow, CreatetheautumnpeaksofAshigara

ThispoemistheoneIenjoythemostofall.Ithinktheexpression,"ThetatamiofamountainvillaandthemountainsinKaiprovinceallinarow"issplendidindeed. Modernwritersareaccustomedtousingsuchdryexpressions,butIthinktheyshouldconsiderturningtothe

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expressionsusedinpoemsandsongs.Imaybeopinionatedinsayingso,butIwouldliketospeakmymind.WhenIgazeddowntheKoshuroadfrombehind Shinjukustation—Iwasreallythinkingaboutaroughtripthroughacloudofdust—Ifounditfascinatingthattheflowoftheroadismuchliketheflowofariver.When IwalkedpastthefrontoftheimperialtombinTamaandenteredthetownofFuchu,Isawscarletmyrtleblossomsundertheeavesofeveryhouse.Proceedingbeyond theracetrackandoverthebridge,IenteredthecityofHachioji.Thisplacefeelsmorelikeasingleavenuethanitdoesatown;itseemedtobejustrightforasingle streetcarline.ThenIclimbedalongthefootofMt.Takaoandtothegreatwaterfall.TheresitstheKoshubordermarker,andthebleachedwhiteroadpeacefullytrails offdowntothetownofYose. Atateashop,IatethelunchIhadbroughtalongandtheneventuallymademywaybackfromYosetotheKobotokepass.Gazingattheclearmountainstream touchedmedeepinmyheartastheimagefloodedmyeyes.SomedaywhenIhavethetime,IthinkIwouldliketogototheruinsofSenninTaiteiinHachiojiorthe ShinkakuTempleinYokoyamaSandawhereBasho's"FrogMound"islocated. IalsolikeTodori,whichispartoftheImperialHouseholdForestryBureaureserve.Atthewaterfallthere,Idrankthemountainstreamwatertomyheart'scontent, andthenIcooledmyfacewithadamphandtowel.Ifeltprofoundlyhappytobealiveandhealthy.Water,theearth,thesky...theyalwaysmakemefeelgood.AsI don'tmakemanyplansbeforeIsetoutonajourney,Ienjoycarefullyexaminingthemapeachnewday.Thispreparesmetosetoutonmyownatmyownpace wheneverIfeeltheneedtoleavetown.IthinkitagreatstrokeofluckthatIamnotsomegloomyhousewifewhoseliferevolvesaroundherhusband'swallet.WhenI comehomefromadaytrip,Ifindithardnottogoofftothekitchenandkeepworkingaway.MyfamilylaughsatmewhenIsaythatImusthavebeenapuppyina formerlife.IgowhereIwanttogo.Ifindgroupexcursionsimmenselytrying,andIrarelymakeplans.WheneverIdomakeaplan,everyonejustagreeswithme anyway,sothere'sreallynopointinmakingaplaninthefirstplace. Thissummer,Ihaveonlymadeadaytriptothegreatwaterfall,butonceautumnarrives,Iwouldliketotakeathree­weekholidaywithmymotherwiththefollowing itinerary:wewouldleaveforKoshufromShinjuku,gofromShiojiriinShinshutoTajimi,Nagoya,throughYokkaichitoTsuge,Kizu,Kyoto,Ayabe,around FukuchiyamatoTottori,Matsue,IzumoImamachi,IwamiMasuda,Yamaguchi,Kogunasa,andShimonoseki.Suchaspreewouldbedelightful.MymotherandIfight likecrazywhenwetraveltogether.Shetakeschargeandsuggestswestayatacheaplodginghouse,butI'msuchapleasure­seekerthatI

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alwayswanttostayinafirst­classinn—neitheroneofusyieldstotheother'sopinion.Thetwoofusquerulouslymuddlealongandthankfullymanagetocompletethe journey,butthere'snoneedformetobehaughtyandhavereservationsabouttravelingwithmymother.ThekindoftripthatIreallyhateisthelecturetour.I'mrarely askedtodoone,butthereisnothingasembarrassing,hateful,andludicrousasalecturetour.Journeysarebestmadealoneorwithonecompanion.Andwhenthetrip islong,oneshoulddoitalone.LastyearIwenttoHokkaidoandKarafutobymyselfonaone­monthjourneyandIstayedatmerchantinns—itwasveryinteresting. WritingthismaymakeitseemtothereaderasifIworkandtravelwithease,butactuallyitisverydifficultformetowritenovels.Itispleasurableandpainful.There areevendayswhenIthinkIwouldbebetteroffdead.Itravelbecausewritingbecomesintolerable.BecauseIwouldbegreatlytroubledifmymotherdiedinmy absence,Imakeitapointtotakeheralongwithmeonshorttrips.Ihavebeenwithmyhusbandforsevenoreightyearsnow,andwhenhereturnedfrommilitaryduty inthereserves,Iwenttomeethimandwetraveledtogether.Weprobablyseemedlikeanoddcoupletoothers,butweintendtotravelintoouroldage,complete withwalkingcanes.Itravelwithafeelingofself­indulgence;Irevelsecretlyinthejoyofyouthandofbeingawriter.WhenIfacedifficultiesthatseeminsurmountable, IescapeitallbyspendingeverycentI'vegotontravel.WhenIhavetroublewriting,itmakesmefeelallthemoreliketakingatrip.Ithinkthatatwo­orthree­daytrip forrelaxationisgoodforone'sphysicalhealth.Thegoodandbadmemoriesofajourney,likeajarofricewine,arethekindsofthingsthatoneburiesintheground,to unearthandenjoyatalaterdate. LatelyIhavebeengazingatthepassingautumnclouds,andthedesiretotravelamongtheshadowsofthemountainswellsupuncontrollablyinsideme.Althoughthe weathermaybesizzlinghotwhenItravel,thejourneyhelpsmemakeprogressinmywork.Idon'tlikethepracticeofgoingtoaresorttoescapethesummerheatof thecity.IpassedthissummerintheheatofTokyo,workingintermittentlyinthecoolmorninghours.This,too,isapartofthesimpleandquietlifethatIseek.

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MyWork18 Iamakindofitinerantwriter,onewhodoesnotbelongtoanyoneliterarygroup.Overthepasttenyears,Ihaveproducedavariedlotofworks,buttheoddthingis thatnoneofthemhaveeverdrawnmuchofareadership.IwasrecentlyreadingKawabataYasunari'sMySpecimenRoom,whichhewrotesometimeago,andI foundmyselfenviousofhisabilitytocreatesuchasuperiorpieceofwriting.19AlthoughItrytolivemylifetothefullest,noneofmyworkshavesuchafastidious tenacityasKawabata'sworks.Lookingback,IthinkthatIhavemadethelifeIdepictedinDiaryofaVagabondthefoundationstoneofmylife.AlthoughIhave somehowmanagedtogetthisfarwithnothingbutthisratherroughliteraryspiritofmine,anyreliefIfeelistaintedbyabitofanxiety.IfeelthatifIrelaxmygripabit,I willsoonendupdrowning.ItisnotthatIfeelwritinganexplanatoryessayonpastworkstobeunpleasant.ItissimplythatIdonotknowwhatwordstousenowin ordertodescribethedreamyandfoolishworkswhichIwroteinthepast.WhatmarksmywritingisthatIwritewithallmysoulandthatIentrustmyreaderswiththe finaljudgmentofthepiece. Irespondtoothersthroughmywork.Ispeakmytruefeelings.Irunupagainstmanydifferentobstaclesinmywork—lastyearwasnoexception.Mywritingcan generallybedividedintothreeperiods:theDiaryofaVagabondperiod,the"ARecordofHonorablePoverty"period,andthe"TheOyster"period.20AlthoughI sufferedmanyhardshipswhilewritingtheseandotherworks,suchhardshipsbecomethefleshandbloodofmywritingandprovidemewithafeelingofplacidity.Iam leftwithnodesiretobuckledownandwritesomethingofgrandproportions. ThepiecewithwhichIhavestruggledthemostasawriteristhenovelLightning,whichwaspublishedseriallyinthismagazine.21Ididnothavetheenergyto completethisnovelproperly,andtothisdayitisnotoneofmyfavoritepieces.Fromthebeginningofthatromance,Iwasoftenstruckwithakindof"thirst"—thekind thatIfeelwhenwritingafull­lengthnovel—andIwassweptoffmyfeetcountlesstimesbyafeelingofloneliness.Lightningwasafreshbreezeforme,butasthat breezewasbornfromthefoulwindsthatproduced"TheOyster,"itmademefeelasifIhaddiedinabattlebetweenmyselfandmyworks. Ihavewrittencountlessshortpiecesfromtheearly"TheAccordionandtheFishTown"to"TheSnappingTurtle,"whichIwrotethisyear,butthereareonlyatrifling fewthatImyselflike.22AndevenafterreadingthosepiecesthatIlike,Iamnottransportedtoanyrealmofhappiness.ThisleadsmetothinkonoccasionthatIama strangewriter. It'snotasifIdon'toccasionallyfeelthatIhavebeenwastingmy

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timeinfruitlessendeavorsforthepasttenyears,butifIdosaysomyselfIthinkthatthosetenyearsofpreparatoryworkhavebeenpreciselywhatIneededtogain thecourageandexcitementthatIfeelwithinmetoday.Iwanttoworkwithabandon.WhenIrecentlyhadmyfortuneread,IwastoldthatifIhurriedmyworkI woulddieanearlydeath,butthatdidnotmakemewanttoslowdown.IfeltsobusythatIwouldsimplyburnupifItriedtostandstill.SomehowIfeelthatonceI haveascertainedmygoalIcantakemytimeandwritesolidworks. IbecomeveryangrywhenIreceivenegativecriticismaboutanyofmyworks.Nonetheless,Iamwellawareoftheuglinessofmywritingandthusardentlyattackeach newproject.Imayseemweakhearted,butIcanberatherdetermined. Iamnotmuchofasticklerwhenitcomestoholdingfasttotheplotofastory.Rather,Iamabitcowardlyaboutplotconstruction.Whenacoherent,trunklikeidea comestomind,Ienjoymakingbranchesandleavestoadornit.AndIfeelsuccessfulifmajorallusionsspreadoutfromthetext. IhaverecentlybeenindulginginsomeworksbyMoriOgai.Hiswritingisperfectlystructured,withnounseemlyprotrusions.WhenIwriteanovel,IsetupanOgai novellikeamusicstandinfrontofmeandwhenI'mparched,Ireadit.WhenIamtired,Irereadit.ButIamanunskillfulwriter,andevenwithsuchasplendidmusic standIcannotdrinkinevenalittlebitoftheexpressionandbasicmovementofthoughtthatitprovides.It'sjustthatIwanttowritesomethingthatcouldbeconsidered mylife'swork,andnowIfeelthatIamreadytodothat.Itmaysoundstrangeformetosayso,butIfeelthatthejoyandpainofmyworkarebeginningnow. UltimatelyIwouldliketobeasidelinewriter;Idonotliketheideaofmakingmyworksintotime­honoredclassics.Ihavebeenthinkingaboutpublishingacollection ofselectedworks,butIthinkthatitwouldbereadandquicklydiscarded,boththereaderandtheauthorrelievedtohaveitoverwith.Idon'twanttostayinthiskind ofworld;Iwouldliketogoonanew,refreshingpilgrimage.Ithinkthatinaselectedcollectionofmyworks,IwouldputDiaryofaVagabondatthebeginning,but givenallthevariousschoolswithwhichIassociatedmyselffromthattimetothepresent,IamleftfeelinglikeIneedanenematocleansemyselfofitall. Myhappyyouthwillbegintoday. Thecolorofthedistantsea,thecolorofthedistantsky. Theyarefreshlypaintedinmyeyestoday. It'sgoodtobealive! AliveItakedeepbreathsofhappiness I'msogladtobealive.

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NowI'matthepointofbreakingdownandcrying.I'veworkedtoohardupuntilthispoint... Aftercomingthisfar,thereisnopullingback.Imustadvancesteadily.Iwanttolive.Iwanttoliveandwritegoodworks. Icannotwriteanexplanatoryessayonmyearlyworks.Thosearewrittenanddonewith.WhatcommentarycouldIpossiblyaddtothem?I,theauthor,donotknow, sothepiecesmustspeakforthemselves.Isn'tthatforthebest? TheotherdayIwaslisteningtoDvorak's"SlavonicDances."Theyarepieceswhichfillmyheartwithintenseresoundingvibrations.Theymakemefeeltotallycontent. Theymakemeaspiretowritemynextpiecewithsincerity.Icannotseemtorest.

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Notes

Introduction 1.Datesgivenaftertitlesindicatedateofpublicationandinthecaseofaworkthatwasserialized,dateofpublicationofthecompletepiece,unlessotherwisenoted. Englishtranslationsofalltitlesandpublicationdatesaregivenatthefirstmentionoftheworkandomittedthereafter.Foodwaspublishedposthumously. ThetitleofthevolumeisHayashiFumiko,theseriesnameisChikumaNihonbungakuzenshu(Tokyo:Chikumashobo,1992).Thereareatotaloffiftyauthors representedinthiscollection.ThestoriesincludedintheHayashiFumikovolume,intheorderpresented,areAoumaomitari(ISawaPaleHorse,1929 [abridged]),''Fukin*touonomachi"(TheTownofAccordionsandFish,1931),"Sakananojobun,"(PrefacetoFish,1933),"Seihinnosho"(ARecordof HonorablePoverty,1931)Nakimushikozo(Crybaby,1935),"Dauntaun"(Downtown,1949),"Gyokai"(Seafood,1940),"Kaki"(Oyster,1935), "Kawahaze"(TheRiverGoby,1947)and"Yaen"(WildMonkey,1950). 2.Ofnote,JaniceBrownrecentlypublishedISawaPaleHorse,atranslationofbothFumiko'searlypoetryintheeponymouscollectionandpoetryselectionsfrom DiaryofaVagabond(Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1997).JoanEricsonalsorecentlypublishedcommentaryonHayashiFumikointhecontextofbeinga joryusakka,alongwithapartialtranslationofDiaryofaVagabond(BeaWoman:HayashiFumikoandModernJapaneseLiterature[Honolulu:Universityof HawaiiPress,1997]). 3.DiaryofaVagabondandFood,respectively.

Chapter1.LifeofandInfluencesontheAuthor 1.ThereisalargecollectionofwritingonthesubjectofFumiko'slife,largerthanwhathasbeenwrittenaboutherliterature.ThefascinationwithFumiko'slifeis understandable,giventhefactthatherfirstandpossiblymostsuccessfulworkwastheautobiographicalnovelDiaryofaVagabond.Sinceitspublication,readers havebeeneagertoknowmoreaboutthelifeportrayedonitspages.AnddespitethefactthatsoonafterthesuccessofDiaryofaVagabondFumikoearnedenough fromroyaltiestopermanentlyremoveherselffromthelifeofpovertyforwhichshehadbecomefamous,sheistothisdaymostoftenrememberedassomeonewho livedahardlife.OneoftheproblemswiththisisthattheinformationprovidedinDiaryofaVagabondandotherautobiograph­

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icalworksisnotalwaysafaithfulrecordofrealeventsasrecordedbothbytheauthorherselfinessaysandothermiscellanyandbythosewhoknewherduringher lifetime.Theresultisalargecollectionofconflictinginformationthatitselfhasbecomethesubjectofvariousstudies.WhileIfeelitisimportanttoknowaboutthe lifeinfluencesofanywriter,IwanttoavoidthemireofconflictingfactsthatsurroundFumikoasmuchaspossible,andsohereIacknowledgethatthebodyofmy biographyisbasedononemainsource:theannotatedchronologicaltablecompiledbyImagawaEiko,whichispublishedinvolume16oftheBunsendoHayashi Fumikozenshu.Othersources,whenused,areappropriatelycited.IchoseImagawa'stablefortworeasons:first,itismuchmoredetailedthanothertablesofits kind,whichleadsmetobelievethatitwasmorecarefullycompiled;second,whilenoneofthechronologicaltablescontainbibliographicnotes,makingitdifficultto checktheiraccuracy,Imagawa'shasprovedconsistentwithwhatcrosschecksIhaverunondatesandotherfacts.Ontheotherhand,Idonotclaimthat Imagawa'stableistheauthoritativesourceaboveallothersources;itsimplyisoneofthebestchoicesforabriefoverviewoftheauthor'slife. 2.MojiwasincorporatedintoKitaKyoshuin1963.HerfamilyregistrysaysthatshewasbornonDecember31inMoji,FukuokaPrefecture.However,thereis conflictinginformationaboutherbirth:hermothersaysthatshewasborninJune.InDiaryofaVagabondandinHitorinoshogai*(OnePerson'sLife,1939),she saysthatshewasborninMay.InPari(no)nikki(ParisDiary,1947)shesaysthatshewasbornonMay5th.Fordetailsonherbirthdateandrelatedfamilyevents, seeWadaYoshie's"HayashiFumiko:Shusshononazo"(HayashiFumiko:TheRiddleSurroundingHerBirth)inKindaijoryubungaku:Nihonbungakukenkyu shiryo(Tokyo:Yuseido,1983),131–36;"Pari(no)nikki,"(ParisDiary)inShincho*HFZvol.8,152.Thetitleof"Pari(no)nikki"isalternatelycitedwithand withouttheparticlenosoIhavechosentoplaceitinparentheses.TheversionusedforthisbookistheonefoundinHayashiFumikozenshu,anddoesnothavethe particle. 3.TheysoldChinese­styleherbalmedicine(kampoyaku). 4.FukudaKiyoto,HayashiFumiko:Hitotosakuhin(Tokyo:Shimizushoin,1966),14. 5.Shincho*HFZvol.2,178–79. 6.InoueTakaharu,HayashiFumikotosonoshuhen(Kokubunji:Musashinoshoin,1990),13. 7.FukudaKiyoto,HayashiFumiko:Hitotosakuhin,12–13. 8.Shincho*HFZvol.2,5. 9.InoueTakaharu,HayashiFumikotosonoshuhen,16. 10.Ibid.,23–24. 11.Ibid.,24.InouesaysthatFumikoherselftoldthisstorytohismother,InoueYoshiko,whointurnrelatedittohim. 12.Ibid.,26. 13.Foranexample,seeItagakiNaoko'sbiography,HayashiFumiko(Tokyo:Tokyoraifusha,1956),24–25. 14.HFZvol.4,288. 15.HFZvol.4,288.

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16.ThesceneinOnePerson'sLifethatdescribesherfirstassignationwithKoizumiisfoundinShincho*HFZvol.8,80. 17.TakemotoChimakichi,NingenHayashiFumiko(Tokyo:Chikumashobo,1985),25–29.TakemotoquotesotherestablishedbiographersofFumiko,andthen provideshisownevidence.Chapter6inTakemoto'sbookalsodiscussesthefather­daughterrelationshipandincludescorrespondencebetweenthetwo. 18.ImagawaEiko(HFZvol.16,288)quotesNakaharaMasaofromHayashiFumikotoShimonoseki. 19.TheImagawachronologysaysthatshereadGoethe's,Mérimée's,andPrévost'sworksintheEruterusosho*(WertherLibrary),acollectionofforeignworksin translationpublishedbySinchoshafrom1917to1927.Thetranslationsoftheseworkswerebythefollowing:L'HistoireduChevalierdesGrieuxetdeManon LescautbyHirotsuKazuo(1891–1968),CarmenbyFuseNobuo(1892–?),andDieLeidendesjungenWerthersbyHataToyokichi(1892–1956).(Nihon kindaibungakudaijiten,vol.6,entryforEruterusosho.) 20.SeeItagakiNaoko,HayashiFumikonoshogai*:Uzushionojinsei,63–67,formoreinformationonFumiko'sschooldays. 21.ItagakiNaokodescribesherasanear­sightedgirlwhosatinthefrontrowinordertoseetheboardbetter(ItagakiNaoko,HayashiFumikonoshogai*: Uzushionojinsei[Tokyo,Daiwashobo,1965],64–65). 22.Heretheword"scent"isnioi,thesamewordthatistranslatedas"smell"inpreviouspassages.InallofthesepassagestheJapanesewordisthesame:nioi. 23.Passage(e)fallsintoboththefirstandthethirdcategories,asitrecallsacharacterandcausesthepersonalrecollectingtofeelnostalgia. 24.A"shoeattendant"wasajobinwhichshewasresponsibleforarrangingandcaringfortheshoesthatcustomersatsomeestablishmentwouldleaveatthedoor uponenteringthebuilding. 25.Upuntilthispoint,Fumikohadwrittenhernameinkatakana.ThenamethatKobayashisuggestedwaspronouncedthesamebutwrittendifferently,inkanji. Fumikoadoptedthenewcharactersandusedthispennametherestofherlife. 26.FukudaKiyoto,HayashiFumiko:Hitotosakuhin,52. 27.Ibid.,47–48. 28.ItagakiNaoko,HayashiFumikonoshogai*(Tokyo:Daiwashobo,1965),86–91. 29.TheNihonkindaibungakudaijitendescribesTheTwoofUsasa"poetrymagazine"(shizasshi)thatwasan"eight­pagepamphlet"(hachipeejino panfuretto).Seeentryfor"Futari"involume4. 30.Therearetwoparticularlyviolentscenes:oneonpage229andtheotheronpage247inShincho*HFZvol.1. 31.Fumiko'srelationshipwithNomura,aswellasherotherlovers,isdiscussedindetailinMuramatsuSadataka's"HayashiFumikonodanseihenreki"inSakkano kakeitokankyo(Tokyo:Shibundo,1964),202–17. 32.Shincho*HFZvol.5,88–89. 33.Shincho*HFZvol.5,101.

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34.Shincho*HFZvol.13,180–81. 35.Shincho*HFZvol.13,204–5. 36.Shincho*HFZvol.2,247. 37.Thisname,"Rokubin,"isnotreallyhisgivenname.WhenaskedbyInoueabouthowhehappenedtohavesuchanoddname,herepliedthathisrealnameis "Masaharu,"butthatthecharactersusedtowrite"Masaharu"areeasilymistakenforthoseusedtowrite"Rokubin."Overthecourseoftime,Rokubinacceptedthe factthatpeoplereadhisnameincorrectly.RokubintoldInoue,"Everybodycallsme'Rokubin,'sothatwilldofine''(Inoue,HayashiFumikotosonoshuhen,276). 38.FormorebackgroundontheestablishmentofWomenandtheArtsandotherworkspublishedinit,alongwithcommentaryonDiaryofaVagabond,see TakamiJun's"Zenjoseishinshutsukoshinkyoku"inShowabungakuseisuishi1(Tokyo:Bungeishunjusha,1958),179–202. 39.MoriEiichi,HayashiFumikonokeisei:Sonoseitohyogen(Tokyo:Yuseido,1992),55–56. 40.Ofthefifty­sixpublishedworkscitedintheImagawachronologybetween1928and1930,onlyfourwereselectedtobeincludedintheHayashiFumikozenshu (HFZ).Between1931and1932,only9outof59workswereincludedinthezenshu.Thepercentageofincludedworksincreasegraduallyoverthefollowingyears, butonecanseebythesenumbersthatmanyofFumiko'searlyworkshavebeenignoredbyeditors,presumablybecausethequalityofwritingissubstandard. 41.Inthezenshuonly7ofthe34poemswerereprinted.SeeShincho*HFZvol.1,7–25. 42.MoriEiichi,HayashiFumikonokeisei:Sonoseitohyogen,18. 43.Intheprologue,Fumikowrote,"HereIhavecollectedallthepoemsfromthepasttenyearsofwhichIamfond."(MoriEiichi,HayashiFumikonokeisei:Sono seitohyogen,18). 44.OnecouldconsiderthistheJapanesegovernment,asTaiwanwasacolonyofJapanatthetime.Likewise,givenTaiwan'scolonialstatus,thistripwasnot technicallyatriptoaforeigncountry,butgiventhatTaiwanwasculturallyandhistoricallynotpartofJapan,andthatitceasedtobeacolonyafterafiftyyearperiod,I shallhereconsideritaforeigncountryforallintentsandpurposes. 45.Mukdenispresent­dayShenyang. 46.Forexamplesofsources,seeDonaldKeene'sDawntotheWest:JapaneseLiteratureintheModernEra,1141andFukudaKiyoto'sHayashiFumiko:Hito tosakuhin,62. 47.InoueTakaharu,inhisbiographyofFumiko,describesFumikoshowingupathisfamily'shouseonthemorningofNovember8andannouncingthatshewas leavingforEurope.Inouewrites,"MymotherranouttogreetherandFumiko,said,'Yoshiko,I'mgoingtoParis,France!...Whatasurprise,eh?'Itwasentirely unexpectedandallYoshikocouldsaywas,'Really?'"(InoueTakaharu,HayashiFumikotosonoshuhen,33). 48.FukudaKiyoto,HayashiFumiko:Hitotosakuhin,65. 49.Theessayisentitled"RoJintsuioku"(AReminiscenceofLuXun),inKaizo,Tokyo:Kaizosha,April1937.

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50.ThisjourneyisrecordedinmanysourcesonFumiko.ThedatesgivenherearefromtheImagawachronologyinHFZvol.16,294. 51.Seetranslationof"Bungaku,tabi,sonota"(Literature,Travel,Etc.,1936)intheappendix. 52.DonaldKeene,DawntotheWest:JapaneseLiteratureintheModernEra(NewYork:HenryHolt,1984),1142. 53.ImagawarecordsFumiko'sdestinationsandtraveldatesindetailinherchronology,HFZvol.16,295. 54.FukudaKiyoto,HayashiFumiko:Hitotosakuhin,66–67. 55.HFZvol.16,107. 56.Fumikowroteashortessayentitled"Kane"(Money,1939)inwhichshedescribesadebtcollectorcomingtoherhousetocollectonadebtthatherlatefather hadincurredtwentyyearsearlier.ShewasquiteupsetwhenshefoundthatKisaburo*designatedher,atthetimeelevenyearsold,astheguarantoronthedebt.The factthatherparents'debtscouldcomebacktohauntheraftersomuchtimewasverydisturbingtoher,andshewritesthatshereproachedhermotherforbeing involvedinsuchanact.(See"Kane"inShinkyotofukaku[Tokyo:Sogensha,1939],109–11.) 57.Thisisrecordedintwoplaces:thefinalsectionofpart2ofDiaryofaVagabond(Shincho*HFZ,vol2,181–86)and"LittleViewpoint"(HFZvol.16,105– 11).Thelatterisalmostidenticaltotheformerexceptforafeweditorialchanges. 58.RichardH.Mitchell,inhisstudyofcensorshipinJapan,notesthat"Writersdidnotneedtopublishtocomewithinreachofpolicepower;afavoritepolicecharge againstauthorswastoaccusethemofcontributingfundstotheJapanesecommunists(aviolationofthePeacePreservationLaw).KobayashiTakijiwasarrestedon thischargeinJanuary1931,aswasHayashiFumikoin1933."ThePeacePreservationLaw(Chianijiho)wasa1925lawthatcalledforimprisonmentof"anyone whohasorganizedanassociationwiththeobjectiveofalteringthekokutai[nationalpolity]ortheformofgovernment"(RichardH.Mitchell,CensorshipinImperial Japan[Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983],271–72,196–97). 59."ANightofDreams"inShincho*HFZvol.11,69. 60.Seethetranslationofheressay,"Watashinochiheisen"(MyHorizon,1931)inappendixformoredetail. 61.HFZvol.12,189. 62.HFZvol.12,191. 63.HFZvol.13,215–16. 64.IhavefoundnoevidencethatFumikodidso,althoughthatdoesnoteliminatethepossibilitythatshemightindeedhavedonesowithouteverwritingaboutit. GivenFumiko'spenchantforwritingaboutherself,herlife,andherwork,however,thisseemsaremotepossibilityatbest. 65.ShinchoHFZvol.1,62. 66.ShinchoHFZvol.1,63. 67.ShinchoHFZvol.8,38–39. 68.Thisjournal,publishedposthumously,waskeptfrom1943through1947.Itisapparentlyfactualandtruetotheauthor'slife.

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69.Shincho*HFZvol.11,56.ThelastsentenceofthispassageisNihonnobukkyowa,moichido,kangaenaosarenakerebanaranaitoomoimasu.Fumiko meansthattheattitudesthatJapanesehavecometohavetowardBuddhismshouldbereexaminedandchanged. 70.ShinchoHFZvol.2,23. 71.ShinchoHFZvol.20,39. 72.Azumareferstocheapclothsatchelsinwhichwomencarriedcigarettes.ShinchoHFZvol.3,199. 73."Watashinoshigoto"(MyWork,1937),ShinchoHFZvol.19,246. 74.IsogaiHideo,HayashiFumiko(Shinchonihonbungakuarubamu,vol.34[Tokyo:Sinchosha,1986]),69. 75.Bundanmeans"literaryworld"or"literaryestablishment."Thiswasnotaformalgroup,butratheragenerallyrecognizedgroupofwriterswhowereconsidered accomplishedintheirart. 76.AsquotedbyMoriEiichi,HayashiFumikonokeisei:sonoseitohyogen,131. 77.HFZvol.10,22. 78.HFZvol.10,26. 79.HFZvol.10,33–34. 80.HFZvol.16,131–32. 81.DennisKeeneidentifiesthesetwowriters'worksasmaininfluencesonYokomitsu's"TheMachine"(DennisKeene,YokomitsuRiichi:Modernist[NewYork: ColumbiaUniversityPress,1980],167–71). 82.SeeDennisKeene,YokomitsuRiichi:Modernist,79–80,forapartialtranslationoftheessaythatYokomitsupublishedinthefirstissueofBungeijidai(Literary Age),theorganoftheNewSensationalistSchool.Keenesaysofthisessay:"thearticleisremarkableforitsincompetentusageofthevocabularyofaesthetictheory." 83.DonaldKeene,DawntotheWest:JapaneseLiteratureintheModernEra,650–51. 84.TranslationbyDennisKeene,"'Love'"andOtherStoriesofYokomitsuRiichi(Tokyo:UniversityofTokyoPressandJapanFoundation,1974),51. 85.ShinchoHFZvol.2,68. 86.DennisKeenearguesthatitisimpossibleto"transfertherealityofobjectswithoutthesecondaryexistenceofthewriter'smindorfeelingsinterposingbetweenthe objectsandthereader"(YokomitsuRiichi:Modernist,81),althoughthisiswhatYokomitsuclaimedhewastryingtodo.Keenesays,"Whatinsteadmediatesisa sensibilitythatattemptstobeasemptyaspossible,amindwhichrefusesasfaraspossibletogivemeaningstoobjectsintheworld,ortoworkouttheconnections betweenthem;astunnedandexhaustedconsciousnesswhichhasdecidedtogiveup,butstillaconsciousnesstotallyimposeduponallitapprehends.Language mediatesbetweenmenandtheobjectsoftheirworld,andthereisnopossiblewaytopreventthisfromhappening." 87."ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters"inChuokoron*(April1932),260. 88.Inthisshortsectionalonetherearethefollowingterms:tokii(talkie),furan(franc),chibusu(typhoid),toramachikkuhoteru(traumatichotel),ran­

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debu(rendezvous),mekishiko(Mexico),sairento(silent),nesupa(n'est­cepas),toranku(trunk),adeyu(adieu),subuniiru(souvenir),andkonpuranpa (comprendspas). 89.Becausethisiswrittenphoneticallyinhiragana,itisimpossibletotellifFumikomeantthistobecomprendpasorcomprendspas,adifferenceinconjugation thatwouldindicatethesubjectoftheaction("he/she"or"I"). 90.Herethekanjiforhayashi("forest")isglossedbaa,fortheFrenchbois."ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters,"260–61. 91.TranslatedbyDennisKeeneinYokomitsuRiichi:Modernist,167.Keene'sfootnotesaysthatthiswas"awidely­quotedrecollectionmadeafterthePacificWar." SeeHirano,Showabungakushi(Tokyo:Chikumashobo,1963),87;OdagiriSusumu,Showabungakunoseiritsu(Tokyo:Keisoshobo,1965),249ff. 92.HFZ,vol.16,113.ThisistheonlyspecificreferencetoYokomitsuRiichi'swritingthatFumikomade,buttherearephotographsthatshowthetwoofthem meetingontwoseparateoccasionsin1935(SeeIsogaiHideo,HayashiFumiko:Shincho*nihonbungakuarubamu,vol.34[Tokyo:Sinchosha,1986],68,70) andalsoaletterthatFumikosenttoYokomitsuin1936recommendingahotelinLondon(IsogaiHideo,HayashiFumiko,70),whichshowthatshehadagiven amountofinteractionwithhim. 93."TheSpring"isthestoryofayoungmarriedwoman,Kuniko,whohasanextramaritalaffairwithamannamedJinzai.Thestorysuffersfromtryingtocontaintoo manysecondaryplots,butthelackofcohesioniscompensatedforbythelargeamountofintrigue:Kuniko'shusbandneverknowsaboutheraffair,nordoesheknow thatheisnothischild'srealfather.KunikomeetsJinzaiinParis,whereherhusbandisstationed,andtheforeignsettinggivestheaffairanexoticair.Kunikoistaken intopolicecustodyinconnectionwithherlover,who,itturnsout,isacriminalwantedbytheauthorities. "LightnessandDarkness"isaboutayoungwomanwhoisforcedintoanarrangedmarriagebyherfamily.Shedoesnotlikeherrelativesverymuch,butshelearns duringthecourseofthestorytocopewithhercircumstancesandtotakeafirmstandforthingsthatareimportanttoher.Itisamorematurestorythan"The Spring"anddoesnotdependonsensationalismtomaintainthereader'sattention. 94.DennisKeene,YokomitsuRiichi:Modernist,167. 95.In"Shusei*sensei"(MasterShusei,1947),HFZvol.16,53. 96.In"Itarutokoroaoyamaari"(GreenMountainsAllAround,1947)inHFZvol.16,133. 97.MoriEiichihaswrittenatlengthabouttheinfluencethatShuseihadonFumikoinhisbookShuseikaraFumikoe(Kanazawa:NotoInsatsu,1990),156–88.See thisforcomparativeexcerptsfrombothauthor'swriting,aswellasimportantquotationsfromFumiko'sessaysthatmentionShusei. 98.Soseki*asquotedbyHiranoKenin"Kaisetsu"inTokudaShuseishu,vol.4ofShincho*Nihonbungaku(Tokyo:Sinchosha,1973),294. 99.AssummarizedfrompartIIofMoriEiichi'sShuseikaraFumikoe. 100.UnoKoji*usedtemporallayeringextensivelyinhisnovelsKuranonaka(IntheStorehouse,1919)andYumemiruheya(ARoomforDreaming,

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1922).Thenarrativesinbothmovefrompresenttopastandbacktopresentagain. 101."Footprints"is"Ashiato"(1910);"TheStoryofaProstitute''is"Arubaishofunohanashi"(1920). 102."TheFoldingSatchel"is"Orikaban"(1926). 103.TheJapaneseherefor"argumentation"isrikutsu,whichcouldalsobetranslatedas"theory,""logic,"or"reason."FumikoisalludingtowhatSoseki*saidabout Shusei*'swritinghavingnophilosophy,butwhatwasanegativecommentonSoseki'spartisrepeatedhereasapositiveone. "TheStubbySpirit"is"Chibinotamashii"(1935).TheentirequoteisfoundinHFZvol.16,56. 104.MoriEiichi'sargumentsarewellstructuredwithcopiousquotations,allfullyannotatedwithbibliographicinformation.Hepresentsmuchmorematerialthanwould beappropriatetoaddressinthissection,buttheworkisadmirableanddeservestheinterestedreader'sattention.(SeeShuseikaraFumikoe,155–88.) 105.HFZvol.16,141–44. 106.Hokuganbutai(TheNorthBankUnit,1939)inHFZvol.12,262.AsoldierasksFumikohowRokubinis,and,touchedbythesoldier'sthoughtfulness,she repliesthatheisstillstationedinahospitalinUtsunomiya. 107.DonaldKeene,"TheBarrenYears:JapaneseWarLiterature"inMonumentaNipponica,XXXIII.(Tokyo:SophiaUniversityPress,1978),70. 108.KeeneusestheWade­GilesromanizationsystemforChinesenames,whereIusethePinyinromanizationsystem.Thus,PekingisBeijing,HankowisHankou, andNankingisNanjing. 109.DonaldKeene,"TheBarrenYears:JapaneseWarLiterature,"84.FormoreinformationontheInformationSectionoftheCabinetandthePenUnit,seeRichard H.Mitchell'sstudyofcensorshipinJapan,CensorshipinImperialJapan,286–87,294–95. 110.ShereportsinTheNorthBankUnitthatmalariawascommonplaceandthatthesoldiersshemetconsidereditaroutinesortofdiseasetocontract(HFZvol. 12,278).InoueTakaharualsomentionsthatFumikoherselfcontractedmalaria(HayashiFumikotosonoshuhen,74). 111.Thispassage,writtenbyFumiko,istranslatedandprintedinapamphletpublishedbytheHayashiFumikoMemorialHall,butbibliographicinformationhasbeen omitted.(HayashiFumiko,HayashiFumikoMemorialHallPamphlet,1992,Shinjuku,Tokyo.) 112.HayashiFumikoMemorialHallpamphlet. 113.RokubincontinuedtoliveinthehouseafterFumiko'sdeathuntilhisowndeathin1989.Inaccordancewithhiswill,ithassincebeenconvertedintotheHayashi FumikoMemorialHall,aprivatemuseum. 114.DonaldKeene,"TheBarrenYears:JapaneseWarLiterature,"68. 115."BelowtheEquator"wastheonlyworkFumikopublishedfromSoutheastAsiathatwasincludedinHFZ.TheImagawachronologicaltableinHFZvol.16, 303,incorrectlylists"Sumatra—IslandoftheWesternWind"as"Sumatora—Seinannoshima."Theoriginaltext,publishedinKaizoinJuneandJuly1943,isentitled "Sumatora—Seifu*noshima."

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116.Forstatisticsonthenumberofpublisherspermittedtocontinuepublishingandotherdetailsongovernmentcontrolsofthepublishingindustrybeginningin1943, seeRichardH.Mitchell'sCensorshipinImperialJapan,332–35. 117.TheletterisreprintedinHayashiFumikotosonoshuhen,273–75. 118.RokubindoesnotprovideHanzawa'sgivennameinhislettertoInoueTakaharu.HemerelydescribesHanzawaas"afriendof[Fumiko's]."(Inoue,Hayashi Fumikotosonoshuhen,274.) 119.InoueTakaharu,HayashiFumikotosonoshuhen,272–76.InhislettertoInoue,RokubinexpressespuzzlementatwhyFumikoconstructedsuchfictions aboutherson.HealsonotesthatTai'sbiologicalmotherwasastudentatagirls'finishingschoolandhisbiologicalfatherajournalist. 120.IhavemadeeffortstoavoidusingFumiko'sfictionassourcematerialforthisbiographicalchapter,butthelackofbibliographicalinformationinmostHayashi Fumikobiographiesleavesmeindoubtastotheiroriginalsources.InsomecasesitisclearthatthebiographerhasusedDiaryofaVagabondasasource,andthose havebeennotedwithafootnoteinthistext.Ihavetriedtouseonlythose"facts"thathaveoutsideprooftosubstantiatethem,suchasFumiko'seffortstomake Kisaburo*retire,andhisrefusaltodoso. 121.InoueTakaharu,HayashiFumikotosonoshuhen,85,273. 122.Ofnote,"Kaeru"(TheFrog,August,1936,inAkaitori),"Ehon"(PictureBook,June1936,inBungeitsushin),and''Kurara"(Clara,June1935inBungei). 123.Anderusendowa(Andersen'sFairyTales),inSekaidowashu(FairyTalesoftheWorld),(Tokyo:Akaneshobo,1950).Thisisacollectionofeightof Andersen'schildren'sstories,including"TheLittleMermaid"and"TheUglyDuckling." 124.AFamilyofWomenwaspublishedseriallyinFujinkoron(Women'sReview)fromJanuarytoAugust1951.WaveswaspublishedseriallyinChuokoron* fromJanuarytoJuly1951.BothworkswerepublishedinaseparatevolumewiththesoletitleWavesbyChuokoron*shainJuly1951.Foodwaspublishedserially inAsahiShinbunfromApriltoJuly1951andpublishedasaseparatevolumebyAsahishinbunshainOctober1951. 125.TheJapanesefor"solidworks"isshikkarishitamono("MyWork,"Shincho*HFZvol.19,246). 126."MyWork,"Shincho*HFZvol.19,247.

Chapter2.TheOptimismoftheEarlierWorks 1.Theaterandfilmproductionsinclude:March–May1971,March–April1974,August–October1981,September–December1983(allattheGeijutsu­zaTheater). Filmversionsinclude:June1935(PCLStudios),April1954(ToeiStudios),September1961(TohoStudios),September1962(TohoStudios).(KumazakaAtsuko, "HayashiFumiko,"inGendaibungakukenkyu:Johotoshiryo,HasegawaIzumi,ed.[Tokyo:Shibundo,1987],453.) 2.InmostpublicationsofDiaryofaVagabond,therearethreemainparts.ThefirsttwopartsmakeupthenovelDiaryofaVagabond,andthethird

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partisthenovelDiaryofaVagabond,Continued.Manytaikeiandzenshucollectionsomitpartthreealtogether.Inthepresentstudy,sectionnumbersarenot mentionedinreferences,andquotationsfromDiaryofaVagabond,ContinuedaresimplyidentifiedasbeingfromDiaryofaVagabond. 3.Shincho*HFZvol.2,5. 4.DonaldKeene,DawntotheWest:JapaneseLiteratureintheModernEra,1141. 5.OxfordEnglishDictionary.ThedefinitionoftheJapanesewordnikki(diary)issimilar:"Tocollecttogethertheeventsandthoughtsofoneday,affixadate,and onthatdayorshortlythereaftermakearecord;saidrecord"(Nihonkokugodaijiten,Nihondaijitenkankokai,ed.Tokyo:Shogakukan,1975). 6.ShinchoHFZvol.2,94–95. 7.Presumably,FumikoisreferringheretowhyamanwouldchooseOhisaoverOkimi,oneoftheotherworkinggirls. 8.ShinchoHFZvol.2,145–46. 9."Matsubabotan:HayashiFumikobunkoatogaki"(PostscripttoRosemoss:HayashiFumikolibrary,1949)inHFZvol.16,272. 10.MoriEiichi,HayashiFumikonokeisei:sonoseitohyogen,71–72. 11.Inibid.,72.Originalsource:"Seishunnodenki"HayashiFumiko(Tokyo:Tsurushobo,1967). 12.AsquotedbyMoriEiichi,HayashiFumikonokeisei:sonoseitohyogen,94.Originalsource:"HayashiFumikotosonosekai,"inFujinkoron,June1953. 13.IdonotmeantoindicatethatBashowaswritingnecessarilytruthfulaccountsofhisactions.BothheandHayashifictionalizedmuchoftheactionintheir"diaries." Thisdoesnotmeanthattheformatoftheworkceasestobethatofadiary,however. 14.ShinchoHFZvol.19,38–39. 15."Itarutokoroaoyamaari"inHFZvol.16,130. 16.HFZvol.16,114. 17.HFZvol.16,111. 18.HFZvol.16,113. 19.DonaldKeene,DawntotheWest,1139. 20.ShinchoHFZvol.2,216. 21.ShinchoHFZvol.2,220. 22.HFZvol.16,130. 23.Forasummaryofthejunbungakuvs.taishubungakudebates,seeMatthewC.Strecher,"PurelyMassorMassivelyPure?TheDivisionbetween'Pure'and 'Mass'Literature"inMonumentaNipponica51.3:357–74. 24."HorokiIIHayashiFumikobunkoatogaki,"inHFZvol.16,269. 25.Hayashiquotesacriticwhocallsherwork"secondrate"inheressay"MyHorizon,"HFZvol.16,111,butshedoesnotidentifythecriticbyname. 26.Thispoliticizationisoneinwhichtheauthornotonlyisawareofclassstructure(asdefinedbyMarx),healsospecificallyfocusesonthe"proletariat"inaneffortto exposeinjusticesinflicteduponthepoorworkingclass.ForamoredetaileddiscussionofproletarianliteratureinJapan,seeDonaldKeene'sDawntotheWest: JapaneseLiteratureintheModernEra,594–628.

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27.TheWebster'sThirdNewInternationalDictionarydefinesnihilismas"adoctrineorbeliefthatconditionsinthesocialorganizationaresobadastomake destructiondesirableforitsownsakeindependentofanyconstructiveprogramorpossibility." 28.ItagakiNaoko,HayashiFumiko,159. 29.Ibid. 30."MyHorizon,"inHFZvol.16,112. 31.NietzscheasquotedinJohanGoudsblom'sNihilismandCulture(Oxford:BasilBlackwell,1980),11(translationquotedfromTheWilltoPower,Walter Kaufmann,trans.[NewYork,1967],318). 32.TakeuchiSeiichipointstoMasamuneHakucho's(1881–1958)worksasbeingthemostnihilisticpiecesofthetimes.HealsodiscussesIwanoHomei(1873– 1920),KunikidaDoppo(1871–1908),andTayamaKatai(1872–1930)asnihilists,butmoreinthesenseofindividualismthanofwriting"invain."TakeuchiSeiichi, Jikochoetsunoshiso:Kindainihonnonihirizumu(Tokyo:Perikansha,1988),184–282. 33.TakeuchiSeiichi,Jikochoetsunoshiso:Kindainihonnonihirizumu,204. 34.HFZvol.16,112. 35.TheJapaneseistaihennanihirisutodanaa. 36."Tsurukusanohana"(FlowersonaVine,1935),Shincho*HFZvol.4,69. 37.TheJapaneseforthelastlineissonanimonihirisuchikkunikangaenakutemoiidesho?"Meian"(LightnessandDarkness,1936),inShinchoHFZvol.5, 262. 38.PenetratingtheBookofChanges.ASongdynastytext.Theauthor,ZhouMao­shu(1017–73),isalternatelyknownasZhouDun­yiandZhouLian­xi.A pioneerinNeo­Confucianism,ZhouwasheavilyinfluencedbyDaoisttexts.FumikohereactuallyquotesZhou'sotherfamoustext,Tai­ji­tushuo(AnExplanationof theDiagramoftheGreatUltimate).Shedoesnotincludequotationmarks,althoughIhave,andIhaveusedWing­tsitChan'stranslationofthetext.Formore informationonZhouandacompletetranslationofbothhisTong­shuandTai­ji­tushuoseeASourceBookinChinesePhilosophybyWing­tsitChan(Princeton, N.Y.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),460–80. 39.OnePerson'sLife,inShinchoHFZvol.8,116.MytranslationofphilosophicalterminologyisbasedonthatofWing­tsitChaninASourceBookonChinese Philosophy. 40.TheJapaneseisnekaranonihirisuto. 41.TheJapaneseiswatashiwanihirisutottekiraiyo. 42.Junenkan(TenYears,1940),inShinchoHFZvol.21,76. 43.QuotefromWing­tsitChan,ASourceBookinChinesePhilosophy,460. 44.ShinchoHFZvol.19,280. 45.HFZvol.1,434. 46.HFZvol.1,320. 47.Formoredetailonanarchisttheory,seeTheEssentialWorksofAnarchism,MarshallS.Shatz,ed.(NewYork:QuadrangleBooks,1972).

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48.HirabayashiTaiko,"Sehyotokanojo:HayashiFumikonotameni,"inKindaijoryubungaku,Nihonbungakukenkyushiryososho*series(Tokyo:Yuseido, 1983),75. 49.DavidKelley,NatureofFreeWillaudiotapedlectureseries(SanFrancisco:LaissezFaireBooks,1990).Kelleyidentifiesthreekindsofdeterminism:(1) environmentaldeterminism,whichholdsthattheprimarydeterminantsofactionarecausesintheexternalenvironment;(2)psychologicaldeterminism,whichholdsthat theprimarydeterminantsofactionarepsychologicalfactors,suchasthoughts,feelings,anddesires;and(3)physiologicaldeterminism,whichholdsthattheprimary determinantsofactionareneuraleventsinthebrain.Formypurposesinthisstudy,whenIreferto"determinism,"Ireferexclusivelytoenvironmentaldeterminism. 50.InSincho,March1933,70–71. 51.HFZvol.16,243. 52.Shincho*HFZvol.2,55. 53.ShinchoHFZvol.2,55. 54.ShinchoHFZvol.2,217. 55.ShinchoHFZvol.2,239. 56.ShinchoHFZvol.2,7. 57.Thisphrasemeans"Asforme..."The"beauty"ofthelanguageisinthefirst­personpronoun,uchi.TheexampleHayashigivesofherownspeechhasthesame meaningbutusesthepersonalpronounwashi.Ihaveleftthesephrasesintheoriginal,asEnglishhasbutonefirst­personpronounandcannotconveythedifference. 58.Hayashisaysthatthechildrenwouldnotstopcallingherthedaughterofthe"newstupidgeneral"(shinbakataisho),acharactershepreviouslymentionsasa creationofCharlieChaplin.Thereferenceisobscure,asnoneofChaplin'sfilmshadsuchacharacter.(ShinchoHFZvol.3,18–19.) 59.ShinchoHFZvol.3,26. 60.ShinchoHFZvol.3,122. 61.ShinchoHFZvol.3,123–24. 62.ShinchoHFZvol.3,106. 63.ShinchoHFZvol.3,115–16.

Chapter3.LonelinessandTravel 1.FujikawaTetsuji,"HayashiFumikoron,"inKindaijoryubungaku,Nihonbungakukenkyushiryoseries(Tokyo:Yuseido,1983),91(emphasisadded). 2.TheJapanesefor"sameaskiko"iskikonionaji. 3.TheseareallmentionedintheentryforkikobungakuinNihonkindaibungakudaijiten,OdagiriSusumu,ed.(Tokyo:Kodansha,1977). 4.SeeSekaikikobungakuzenshu,ShigaNaoya,Sato*Haruo,KawabataYasunari,KobayashiHideo,andInoueYasushi,eds.(Tokyo:Horupushuppan,1979). Thisisawide­ranginganthologyoftraveloguesfromaroundtheworld. 5.AccordingtotheNihonkindaibungakudaijiten,improvedmasstrans­

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portationafterWorldWarII(andtheconsequentincreaseinleisuretravelbythecommonman)causedtraveloguestolosetheirliterarynatureandbecomemore pragmatic,travel­guidetypeofworks(seeentryforkikobungaku). 6.AscollectedinSekaikikobungakuzenshu,vols.1and2(France),ShigaNaoya,Sato*Haruo,KawabataYasunari,KobayashiHideo,andInoueYasushi,eds. 7."Literature,Travel,Etc.,"inHFZvol.10,33.Inheressay"MyMemoranda"shealsosaysthatalthoughsomepeoplesuggestedthatshepublishherownmagazine, shewouldmuchratherspendhermoneyontraveltoChina(HFZvol.10,276).ThisattitudeseemstohavelasteduntilsheandRokubinbuiltthehouseinOchiaiin 1941. 8.KataokaYoshikazualsonotesthat"Having...movedseventimesinthecourseoffouryearsfromonelodginghousetoanother,andhavingalsobeencompelled eachtimetochangeschools,thegirlacquirednotevenasinglefriend."(IntroductiontoContemporaryJapaneseLiterature,193.)Thisinformationwasapparently takendirectlyfromtheopeningchapterofDiaryofaVagabondinwhichFumikodescribesherchildhood. 9.SeediscussionbelowaboutFumiko'sdepictionofeventsaboardtheTrans­SiberianRailroad. 10.SeeFumiko'sessay"EverydayLife"(inHFZvol.10,21–29)foradescriptionofhereverydaylifeandworkhabits.[Note:thisessayisdatedFebruary5,1935, butwasnotpublisheduntilApril10,1936,inthecollectionBungakutekidansho(LiteraryFragments).] 11.JoshuisaneologismofFumiko'smaking. 12.Asummaryofherinternationaltravelisasfollows:Taiwan(1930),China(Shanghai,Manchuria,etc.,1931),China,SovietUnion,France,andEngland(1931– 1932),Manchuria(1936),ShanghaiandNanjing(asareporterforAsahiShinhun,1937),Shanghai(1938),Manchuria(1940),Korea(1940),Manchuria(1941), andFrenchIndochinaandSingapore(1942).ForacompletelistingofspecificdatesoftheseandFumiko'sdomestictravels,seetheImagawanenpuinHFZvol.16, 287–310. 13.Forclarity,Iwouldliketodefine'essay'and'travelogue':anessayis"acompositionofmoderatelengthonanyparticularsubject,orbranchofasubject"anda travelogueis"alectureaboutplacesandexperiencesencounteredinthecourseoftravel;henceafilm,broadcast,book,etc.,abouttravel"(definitionsfromthe OxfordEnglishDictionary,2nded.,preparedbyJ.A.SimpsonandE.S.C.Weiner[NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1989]).Iwoulddefinetheseterms furtherbysayingthatanessaycontainsonemajorpointoffocusthatisdiscussedinarelativelyclear,organizedmanner,andalsocontainsaconclusionattheend.A travelogueisacollectionofvignettesunifiedsolelybythefactthattheyarefromthesamejourney. 14.Seeappendixforatranslationofthisessay. 15.See"Tabitsurezure"(IdleThoughtsonTravel),inHFZvol10,91–92,and"Tabidayori"(NewsfromaJourney),vol.16,34–39. 16.Tokyo:Kawadeshobo,1936. 17."Covetsloneliness"iswabimiomotomeru,HFZvol.10,35."Lonelinessexpressesthewholeofme"iskodokuozengatoshiteiru,HFZvol.10,34.

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Thereadermaynotethatneitherthewordryojunorryoshuareusedinthesephrases,butIfeelthatmytranslationistruetotheoriginalmeaning.Thewordzenga isaneologismcreatedbyFumiko;Ihaverenderedzengatoshiteiruhereas"lonelinessexpressesthewholeofme." 18.HFZvol.10,35.Thewordfor'loneliness'hereiskyoshu. 19.HFZvol.10,36. 20."Literature,Travel,Etc.,"Shincho*HFZvol.19,40. 21.HFZvol.10,36. 22.HFZvol.10,92. 23.HFZvol.10,242. 24.Here"mostsupportive"meansthemagazinesthatpublishedthelargestquantityofFumiko'swork,notnecessarilythosethatpaidherthemost.Publisher informationfromtheImagawaChronologyinHFZvol.16. 25.ThesearebynomeansallofthetraveloguesthatFumikowrote.Forreference,itisworthnotingthatmanyofFumiko'sworksonEuropewerepublishedinone volume,entitledSantoryokoki(ARecordofaJourneyinThirdClass[Tokyo:Kaizosha*,1933]).ThevolumeLiteraryFragmentsalsocontainssomeofthese travelogues.Stillotherswerepublishedinvariousperiodicals,butneverrepublishedinbookform.Foradetailedlistofpublications,seebothImagawa'schronology andcatalogofworksinHFZvol.16,283–360. 26.Tosonspenttheyears1913–1916abroad. 27.Inboth"ThirdClassontheTrans­SiberianRailroad"and"ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis,"Fumikoruminatesonthedifferencesbetweenfirstandsecondclass andthirdclass.Whilesheadmitsthatthirdclassisdirtierandperhapslesscomfortablethanfirstandsecondclass,sheenjoysthecamaraderieofthirdclassvery much.In''NewsfromaJourney"shesays,"Traveling[bythirdclass]—andthisisnoexaggeration—issoenjoyable.Itjustwouldn'tbethesameifIrodeinasecond classcompartment"(HFZvol.16,35). 28."Tabibito"(TheTraveler,1941),inHFZvol.5,305. 29.Intheoriginaltext,thewords"Da,da"arewrittenphoneticallyinkatakana.Ihaveleftthisquotation,andallothers,inRussiantoretaintheflavorofthepassage. 30.By"WhiteRussian,"FumikomeansCaucasian,notanti­Communist. 31.Hailarisacityinmodern­dayInnerMongolia(anautonomousregionofthePeople'sRepublicofChina),closetotheMongolianborder. 32.HFZvol.10,248. 33.Theverbusedisdesho,indicatingsuppositionontheauthor'spart.Whilethisinflectionisoftenusedtosoftensentenceendings,itisclearlyusedtoindicate conjectureinthisandothersimilarpassages. 34."ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis,"inKaizo,April1932,26. 35."MyWork,"inHFZvol.10,242–43. 36."MyWork,"inHFZvol.10,243. 37."MyHorizon,"inHFZvol.16,112. 38."ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters,"Chuokoron*,April1932,264–65. 39.HFZvol.4,416. 40.HFZvol.4,361.

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41.Twoplaceswheresheexpressesthislovearein"ParisDiary"(HFZvol.4,415)and"AWalkintheLatinQuarter"(Kaizo,October1932,226).Intheformer, Fumikosaysthathermotheristheonlypersonintheworldwhoreallyunderstandsher.Inthelatter,Fumikoapologizestoherkindparentsforbeingsuchanunfilial child. 42.HFZvol.10,35.Thewords"non"and"oui"inthispassagearewrittenwiththecharactersforinaanddakuandglossednonanduirespectively. 43.HFZvol.16,113.Fumikosays"ThankgoodnessfortheJapaneselanguage!"(nihonnokotobano,nantoarigataikotodearoka)inherdiscussionofthe term'lumpenliterature.' 44."AWalkintheLatinQuarter,"223. 45.TheJapanesetitleisOchiba(1931). 46.Thewordherefor"nostalgia"isryoshu. 47.HFZvol.4,380. 48.AsquotedbyNakamuraMitsuo,"HayashiFumikoron,"inKindaijoryubungaku,Nihonbungakukenkyushiryososhoseries(Tokyo:Yuseido,1983),100. 49.HFZvol.16,43. 50.HFZvol.10,119. 51."ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis,"23. 52.NojimaHideyoshi,"HayashiFumiko:hitotosakuhin,"inShowabungakuzenshu:HayashiFumiko,vol.8,1050. 53.TheoriginalJapaneseisWatashiwaajikinaiotokonoryoshuohakisuteta,asquotedfromDiaryofaVagabondbyNojimaHideyoshi,"HayashiFumiko:hito tosakuhin,"1050. 54.FromFumiko'sCreativeNotebook,asquotedbyNojimaHideyoshi,"HayashiFumiko:hitotosakuhin,"1050–51. 55.NojimaHideyoshi,"HayashiFumiko:hitotosakuhin,"1051. 56.HFZvol.5,468. 57.HFZvol.5,252. 58.HFZvol.5,255. 59.HFZvol.5,256. 60.Ekikenjikkun(TheTenTeachingsofEkiken)isaworkbyKaibaraEkiken(1630–1714),whowasanearlyEdoNeo­Confucianist.Heisbestknownforhis early­eighteenth­centuryworkOnnadaigaku(GreaterLearningforWomen),adidacticworkthatprescribesproperbehaviorforwomen.TheTenTeachingsof Ekikenisacollectionofhis"teachings"(kyokun)compiledposthumouslyin1893byNishidaKeishi.(Nihonkotenbungakujiten[Tokyo:Iwanamishoten,1983]. Seeentriesfor"KaibaraEkiken"and''Ekikenjikkun.") 61.HFZvol.5,258. 62.Ofnote,"TheAccordionandtheFishTown,"Rain,andUruwashikisekizui(SplendidPith,1947)."TheAccordionandtheFishTown,"isanupbeat,optimistic storyaboutFumiko'speripateticchildhood.RainandSplendidPitharebothaboutmenwhoreturnfrommilitarydutyandwho,leavingbehindunbearablehomelives, findsolaceintravel. 63.Thenandevennow,associationwithone'shometown(furusato)isverystronginJapan.UnlikeAmericans,whodonotputmuchimportanceonone's

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birthplace,Japanesetendtofeelastrongconnectiontotheirbirthplaceeveniftheyonlylivedthereforabriefperiodoftheirlife. 64.WhenFumikosaysthatherparentswere"notmembersofanycommunity,"sheimpliesthattheycouldneitherconsidertheirbirthplacesastheir "hometown"(becausetheyhadbeendisownedbytheirfamilies),norcouldtheyconsiderShimonosekiastheir"hometown''becausetheywerenotbornthere.When shesaysthather"hometownwastravel,"shemeansthatalthoughShimonosekiwasherbirthplace,itcouldnotofficiallybeconsideredher"hometown"becauseher parentsdidnotbelongtothatcommunity.TheoriginalJapanesesentenceiskokyoniirerarenakattaryoshinomotsuwatashiwa,shitagattetabigafurusatode atta. 65.HFZvol.1,255. 66.KobayashiHideo,"LiteratureoftheLostHome,"translatedbyPaulAndererinLiteratureoftheLostHome:KobayashiHideo—LiteraryCriticism,1924– 1939(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1995),48. 67.Thevestibule(dekki)isthesectionbetweencarswherepassengersboard. 68.Theimplicationhereisthat,becausethetownwherehermotherlivesisnotherrealhometown,shedoesnotneedtoimpressthetownspeoplebygivingofftheair ofaffluence.ThereisanallusionheretoremarkattributedtotheChinesegeneralXiangYu,"Nottoreturntoone'soldhomeafterhavingbecomerichandfamousis likegoingoutatnightdressedinbrocade.Whowillknowyouarewearingit?"(translationbyHelenCraigMcCulloughinGenjiandHeike:SelectionsfromThe TaleofGenjiandTheTaleoftheHeike(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1994),355ff.n17). 69.Thewordherefor"tedium"istabigokoro,whichmeans"thetediumofajourney." 70.A"butterfly"coiffure. 71.HFZvol.1,329. 72.AsquotedbyFujikawaTetsuji,"HayashiFumikoron,"92. 73.Theuseofparenthesestosetoffthenarrator'sthoughtsfromthemaintextheremaybeaninfluencefromKawabataYasunari,withwhomFumikowasgood friends.TheworksinwhichKawabatausedthismethodinclude"Haritogarasutokiri"(Needles,Glass,andFog,1930)and"Suishogenso"(CrystalFantasies, 1931).TheworksinwhichFumikousedthismethodinclude"Hananoichi"(AFlower'sPlace,1939),"DancingGirl,"andDriftingClouds.Kawabatadidnotuse thismethodforlong,butFumikocontinuedtouseitthroughoutherwritingcareer.KawabatawasnotthefirsttousethismethodinJapaneseliterature;DonaldKeene pointstoIto*Sei's1930translationofJamesJoyce's(1882–1941)Ulysses(1922)astheoriginalplacesuchamethodwasusedinJapaneseliterature(Donald Keene,DawntotheWest:JapaneseLiteratureintheModernEra,798). 74.Shincho*HFZvol.16,91–92. 75.ShinchoHFZvol.16,104–5. 76.ThisromanizedspellingisanapproximationofanunidentifiedVietnameseplacenamethatFumikorecordedinkatakana. 77.HayashiFumiko,DriftingClouds(Tokyo:Yuseido,1953),221.The

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tenseofthefinalsentenceispurposelyambiguous,givingtheimpressionthatYukikoissimultaneouslyinthepastandthepresent. 78.Thetexttellsusthat,duetoworldevents(i.e.,Japan'sdecliningstrengthinthePacificbasin),itwillneveragainbethatJapanesegovernmentemployeeswillbe stationedinIndochina. 79.DriftingClouds(Tokyo:Sinchosha,1953),235. 80.Shincho*HFZvol.15,35. 81.ShinchoHFZvol.15,38. 82."Sorrowful"isaishu,inKameiKatsuichiroasquotedbyKawamoriYoshizo,"Hayashi­sannoshosetsu*,"inKindaijoryubungaku,Nihonbungakukenkyu shiryososho*series(Tokyo:Yuseido,1983),82."Nostalgic"iskyoshu,asfoundinKawafukuTokinori,"HayashiFumikoBangikunitsuite,"inKindaijoryu bungaku,88.''Aspirations"iskojoshin,asfoundinItagakiNaoko,HayashiFumiko,159."Humor"isyumoa,asfoundinYamamotoKenkichi,"HayashiFumiko" inChikumagendaibungakutaikei:SataIneko,HayashiFumikoshu,vol.39(Tokyo:Chikumashobo,1978),537. 83.HFZvol.16,216.

Chapter4.Marriage,Family,andWomen'sIssues 1.JoanEricsonhastracedthehistoryanddevelopmentof"Women'sLiterature"ingreatdetailinherstudyofHayashiFumiko,thusIwillmakeonlybriefmentionofit here.Ericsonchroniclesthehistoryofthetermsjoryusakkaandjoryubungaku(women'sliterature)inherPh.D.dissertation(ColumbiaUniversity,1993)andin "TheOriginsoftheConceptof'Women'sLiterature'"inTheWoman'sHand:GenderandTheoryinJapaneseWomen'sWriting,PaulSchalowandJanetWalker, eds.(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1996),74–115. 2."Rain"shouldnotbeconfusedwithFumiko'snovelbythesametitlepublishedin1942. 3.Thedistinctionbetweenmaleandfemalespeechisnot,therefore,akintothetheorythatwomenhavebeenforcedtouselanguageasmenhavecreatedit,whereas ifwomenwerelefttotheirowndevicestheywouldhavecreatedadifferentlanguage. 4.Inadditionto"Writing"discussedbelow,seethenovelShin'yodogimi(TheNewYodogimi,1950),aboutthelifeofToyotomiHideyoshi's(1536–1598) concubine,Yodogimi(1567–1615).ShewasOdaNobunaga's(1534–1582)nieceandthemotherofHideyoshi'sonlytwochildren,Tsurumatsu(1589–1591)and Hideyori(1593–1615). 5.TheemphasisinTheStoryofEightDogsisnotexclusivelyonConfucianmorality,butitshouldbenotedthatoneofthefivebasicsocialrelationshipsdesignated byConfucianismisthatof"husbandtowife,"thatis,thewifeassubordinatetothehusband.Asinmosttraditionalreligionsandphilosophies,womenwereconsidered inferiortomeninConfucianism. 6.TonomuraJozai(1779–1847)andOzuKeiso(datesunknown),werefriendsofBakin's.HereZolbrodwritesMichi'sandotherwomen'snameswiththehonorific prefixO­.

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7.LeonM.Zolbrod,TakizawaBakin(NewYork:TwaynePublishers,1967),130–31. 8.Ibid.,131. 9.Ibid. 10.Shincho*HFZvol.10,143. 11.TamenagaShunsui(1790–1843)wasalateEdoauthorofprosenarrativesonlove(ninjobon). 12.SantoKyozan(1769–1858)wasalateEdowriterofdrama.HewastheyoungerbrotherofSantoKyoden(1761–1816),whoseworkhecontinuedafter Kyoden'sdeath.RyuteiTanehiko(1783–1842),lateEdowriterofprosefictionanddrama.ThoughttohavereadBakin,hehimselfalsowroteandpracticedthe martialarts. 13.TheJapanesefor"flauntingthembeforethepublicasnovelswrittenbyaman"isotokonokakushosetsu*toshitesekenefurimawashiteiru.Theimplication hereisthatShunsuiwaswritingforthesolepurposeofmakingmoneyandcontinuinghisprofession,andnotforartisticends.(ShinchoHFZ,vol.10,144.) 14.Kuwa(1800–?)wastheyoungestofBakin'sthreedaughters.Zolbrodgiveslittleinformationonher,butdoessaythatshewasmarriedtoanartistandphysician, AtsumiSadashige(Zolbrod,TakizawaBakin,98). 15.InformationfromBakin'sdiaryinZolbrod,TakizawaBakin,100,130.QuoteofSohakuinShinchoHFZvol.10,149.SohakucomplimentsMichionherability togetalongwithBakin,andonherabilitytobepersistentwithhim.Heconcludeswithchichiueyorimo,o­maenohogayoppodogeijutsukada. 16.ZolbroddoesnotethatMichiwasliterate:"Besidesbeingahardworker,O'Michiwascooperative,andaboveall,literate....Herabilitytoreadwithunderstanding [NansoSatomihakkenden]isallthemoreunusualbecausenothingindicatesthat[Bakin'swife]orBakin'sdaughterscouldreadmorecomplicatedliteraturethan chapbooks,theusualreadingfareforwomen."(Zolbrod,TakizawaBakin,99.)However,ZolbroddoesnotdescribeherastheliterarygeniusthatFumikoportrays. 17.Fumiko'sbiographerssometimesusetheword'marriage'(kekkon)whentheyrecordherliasonswithOkanoGun'ichi,TanabeWakao,andNomuraYoshiya. Thisisapparentlyaeuphemismfor'affair,'asthereisnoevidencethatsheevermadeanyformalweddingvowswiththesemen. 18.ItagakiNaoko,HayashiFumiko,81. 19.ShinchoHFZvol.5,105. 20.NobuyukiisHisako'sbrother. 21.ShinchoHFZvol.20,27. 22.ShinchoHFZvol.20,181. 23.ShinchoHFZvol.20,281. 24.Michikohasjustrecentlymovedintoherownroom,anatticroomrentedouttoherbyanoldwoman.Itisthetypeofroomthatprobablyhasbeenrentedoutto manysingle,youngwomenbefore. 25.ShinchoHFZvol.21,151–52. 26.ShinchoHFZvol.21,171–72. 27.ShinchoHFZvol.21,201.

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28.Fumikodiedwhilewritingthisnovel,andsoitisimpossibletotellifHidekowasmeanttobemarried. 29.ReikoisTokiko'sdaughter. 30.Shincho*HFZvol.18,269. 31.Intheauthor'scase,sheapparentlydidnotfacetheseproblemsherselfbecauseRokubinchangedhisnametohersandwasregisteredinherfamilyregistry.His familylivedinShinshu,andalthoughFumikoandRokubinvisitedthemonoccasion,thereisnorecordtoindicateanintensefamilytie.Hermarriagewasnot"typical," andperhapsforthatreasonshewasfascinatedbythosethatwere. 32.ShinchoHFZvol.14,105–9. 33.KozoistheonlyoneofthethreechildrenthatisTamiko'sbiologicalson. 34.ShinchoHFZvol.7,19. 35.ShinchoHFZvol.9,172–73. 36.TheJapanesefor"goldfish"isranchu,avarietyoffishthathaveroundedbacksandthatFumikoraisedinthepondatherhouseinOchiai. 37.The"youngwoman"isthegirlfromtheNishiofamily. 38.ShinchoHFZvol.9,177–78. 39.ShinchoHFZvol.13,107–8. 40.ShinchoHFZvol.13,115–16. 41.Thisisanallusiontotheopeningsceneofthestoryinwhichtheson,Shigeichi,posesariddletohisfathertowhichtheansweris"railroadtracks." 42.ShinchoHFZvol.17,199. 43.TheJapanesehereisdonimo,konoshukumeitekiunmeiwakaiketsunoshiyoganainoda. 44.ShinchoHFZvol.17,197. 45.Mr.KawajiriisHisako'shusband,whotaughtatthesameschooluntilhewasconscripted. 46.ShinchoHFZvol.20,273–75. 47.ShinchoHFZvol.20,281.

Chapter5.WarandFatalism 1.FukudaKiyotodedicatesachapterentitled"Kuraijidainomotode"(TheOriginoftheDarkYears)tothistopic,inwhichhediscusseschangesinFumiko'slifethat mayhaveaffectedherliterature(FukudaKiyoto,HayashiFumiko:hitotosakuhin,69–85),andalsoacriticalsectionentitled"Kuraisakuhin"(DarkWorks)in whichhenotesspecificworks(HayashiFumiko:hitotosakuhin,161–64). ItagakiHirokoalsonotesthatthenumberofFumiko's"dark"workswitha"nihilisticoutlook"grewsteadilyafterthewar(ItagakiHiroko,''HayashiFumiko,"in Kindainihonjoseishi3[Tokyo:Kagoshimakenkyujoshuppan,1972],174). 2.HFZvol.16,281.CriticswhoquotethispassageincludeFujikawaTetsuji,"HayashiFumikoron,"93;NakamuraMitsuo,"HayashiFumikoron,"102;Yamamoto Kenkichi,"HayashiFumiko,"539. 3.FujikawaTetsuji,"HayashiFumikoron,"93. 4."Rinrakuatogaki,"HFZvol.16,245–46.

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5.Hayashioccasionallyusesthepronounanatainthetext. 6.HFZvol.12,237. 7.HFZvol.12,252. 8.DonaldKeenequotesfromTanakaSotaro,HinoAshiheiron(Gogatsushobo,1971),34:"[Hino]insistedthathehadbeenobligedtowriteunderthesespecified conditions:1.TheJapaneseArmymustneverbedescribedaslosingabattle.2.Thekindsofcriminalactswhichinevitablyaccompanywarfaremustnotbealludedto. 3.Theenemymustalwaysbeportrayedasloathsomeandcontemptible.4.Thefullcircumstancesofa[military]operationmustnotbedisclosed.5.Thecomposition ofmilitaryunitsandtheirdesignationsmustnotbedisclosed.6.Noexpressionofindividualsentimentsashumanbeingsispermittedtosoldiers."(DonaldKeene,"The BarrenYears:JapaneseWarLiterature,"76.) 9.HFZvol.12,295. 10.Battlefront(Tokyo:Asahishinbunsha,1938),91–92. 11.DonaldKeene,"TheBarrenYears:JapaneseWarLiterature,"67. 12.Akanmeisaunitofmeasureequaltoapproximately8.72pounds. 13.Asenisacurrencyunitequalto0.1yen. 14.Shincho*HFZvol.10,229. 15.ShinchoHFZvol.10,233. 16.ShinchoHFZvol.10,234. 17.ShinchoHFZvol.2,69.TheJapaneseisAa,yappariikiteirukotomoiimonodatoomou. 18.HFZvol.12,214. 19.ShinchoHFZvol.10,14. 20.ShinchoHFZvol.10,14. 21.Kojiromeansthatheendedupinthehospitalafterbeingconscripted,notbefore. 22.ShinchoHFZvol.10,9. 23.ShinchoHFZvol.10,22. 24.TheJapaneseismainichiikadaokundeshinukunrenosaserareteita. 25.ShinchoHFZvol.10,13. 26.ShinchoHFZvol.13,13.Intranslatingfromthiswork,Ihavetakenthelibertyofindentingforquotationsandnewparagraphs.Theoriginalhasfewindentations andiswritteninthesamestyleasYokomitsuRiichi'sTheMachine. 27.ShinchoHFZvol.13,16. 28.Shukichi*isaperipheralcharacterwhoisacommonfriendofbothEisukeandMachiko. 29.ShinchoHFZvol.13,16. 30.Iuse'nihilistic'heretomeanarejectionoflogicandaspurningofrationalconstructs. 31.Foranexample,seeheressay"Nichijonoseikatsu"(EverydayLife,1939),inShinkyotofukaku,148–51. 32.ShinchoHFZvol.10,188. 33.ShinchoHFZvol.10,188. 34.ShinchoHFZvol.16,66. 35.Thewordforfatehereisyukusue. 36.ShinchoHFZvol.16,71.

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37.Shincho*HFZvol.16,73. 38.ShinchoHFZvol.16,130. 39.ShinchoHFZvol.16,254. 40.Itisnotclearwhatsortofbuildingthesectiserecting,althoughanewchurchseemslikely. 41.Thecharactersinthename"Dainikko"mean"turntowardthegreatsun." 42.ShinchoHFZvol.16,155–56. 43.Theimplicationhereisthatthenewdrugstoreshavebeenopenedinresponsetothecultmembers'demandforhealingmedicinesprescribedbythechurch. 44.Atsuboisameasurementofarea,equalto3.954sq.yds. 45.ShinchoHFZvol.16,159. 46.Earlierinthestorythereisasceneinwhichthesectleadersays,"Pleasedrinkamouthfuloftheetherintheair.Thereisquitealotof'towardthesun'ether pouringintomyhand"(chapter46,ShinchoHFZvol.16,175). 47.ShinchoHFZvol.16,196. 48.Translationsofthesestoriesarein"FiveFablesbyHayashiFumiko"bySusannaFesslerinStudiesinModernJapaneseLiterature:EssaysandTranslationsin HonorofEdwinMcClellan(AnnArbor,Michigan:CenterforJapaneseStudies,1997),369–85. 49.ShinchoHFZvol.17,57. 50.Datesforthesewritersareasfollows:HasegawaShigure(1879–1941),TokudaShusei*(1871–1943),YadaTsuseko(1907–1944),KataokaTeppei(1894– 1944),TakedaRintaro(1904–1946),OdaSakunosuke(1913–1947),DazaiOsamu(1909–1948),KikuchiKan(1888–1948),andYokomitsuRiichi(1898–1947). 51.Ashoisaliquidmeasurementequalto1.8liters. 52.OneDropofInk(Bokujuitteki)wasacollectionofMasaokaShiki's(1867–1902)miscellanypublishedin1901(Nihonkindaibungakudaijiten:kijohan [Tokyo:Kodansha,1992]). 53.TheepitaphisonethatStendahl(BornHenriBeyle,1783–1842)imaginedforhimselfandisfromhisnovelSouvenirsd'egotisme(MemoirsofanEgotist,1832). Theoriginalis"visse,scrisse,amo."(EuropeanWriters:TheRomanticCentury,vol.5,JacquesBarzun,ed.[NewYork:CharlesScribner'ssons,1985],343–45.) 54.ShinchoHFZvol.17,59–60. 55.Inthesectionomittedhere,shetalksaboutherheartcondition,andhowshehadgivenupdrinkingbutcouldnotkickhertwo­pack­a­daycigarettehabit,despite thefactthatshehadbeentoldbyherdoctortodoso. 56.ShinchoHFZvol.17,63.

Appendix 1.TheoriginaltextisinHFZvol.16,111–15. 2.OsugiSakae(1885–1923)wasananarchistradicalwhowaskilledbypoliceaftertheKantoearthquakein1923.

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3.Fumikouseskatakanaherewhenshewritestheword"difficult." 4.KobayashiTakiji(1903–1933)wasaprominentnovelistintheproletarianliteraturemovement.ApparentlyFumikofelthisworkwasnotablybetterthanother contemporaryproletarianwriters. 5.Fumikousesthetermpuroretariyaromanchishijimufor"proletarianromanticistliterature." 6.Fumikousesthetermpuroretariyaseijibungakufor"proletarianpoliticalliterature." 7.Fumikousesthewordrobottofunasakuhinfor"roboticworks." 8.ThiswaspublishedbyChuokoron*inthecollectionofessaysentitledBungakutekidansho(LiteraryFragments)inApril1936.TheoriginaltextisinHFZvol. 10,33–37.InordertoconveytheratherhaphazardstylethatFumikousesinthisessay,Ihavepreservedparagraphdivisionswheretheywereintheoriginaltext,with theexceptionofHanShan'spoem,whichIsetapartfromthemaintexteventhoughFumikodoesnot.ThereadermaynoticethatFumiko's"paragraphs"areactually manyparagraphsinone. 9.HanShanwasaTangdynasty(618–907A.D.)monkwhowasalsoknownforhispoetry. 10.TranslationbyRobertG.HenricksinThePoetryofHan­Shan:ACompleteAnnotatedTranslationofColdMountain(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYork Press,1990),238. 11.Komemisoisakindoffermentedsoybeanpaste,consideredsimplefood. 12.Fumikoisreferringtonovelsthatarepublishedinserializedforminnewspapers,acommonwayforfictiontobepublishedinJapan. 13.HereFumikoreferstoHelenNewingtonWillsMoodyRoark,anoutstandingU.S.tennisplayerwhowasthetopfemalecompetitorintheworldforeightyears (1927–33and1935). 14.ThewordFumikousesherefor"quietthingsinlife"iswabimi. 15.Fumikomeansherethatshedoesnotwanttoworryaboutprovidingdailynecessitiesforherfamily. 16.Thebeautyofthisphraseisinthecolloquialanddialecticlanguageituses,notintheactualmeaning(whichisaboutbeinginfatuated),soIhaveleftitintheoriginal Japanese.ItisnotapparentifFumikoquotesthepassagefromsomeotherwork,orifshecreatesitheretoserveasanexample.ThedialectisfromtheOnomichi areainHiroshimaPrefecture. 17.ThetripthatFumikoproceedstodescribehereisthroughtheoutlyingwesternreachesoftheTokyodistrict.Althoughshefailstomentionit,itseemslikelythat shetookatrainorcarfromShinjukutosomewherenearHachiojiandthencontinuedherjourneyonfoot. 18.ThisessaywasfirstpublishedintheAugust1937volumeofBungei.ThetextisinHFZvol.10,241–44.Thisessayhasthesubtitlejisakuannaisho(AGuideto MyWorks). 19.MySpecimenRoom(Bokunohyohonshitsu)waspublishedin1930. 20.ThesethreeperiodsarenamedaftermajorworksbyFumikobythesamename.Roughly,theperiodsare1928–1931,1931–1935,and1935–1937respectively.

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21.LightningwaspublishedseriallyinBungeiJanuarytoSeptember(omittingAugust),1936. 22."TheSnappingTurtle"(Suppon)waspublishedin1937.Inthisessay,Fumikouseshiraganatowritethetitle,butthestorywasoriginallypublishedwiththetitle writteninkanji.

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———."Taiwannosubuniiru,"inKaigai,June1930,pp.76–79. ———."Taiwanotabishite,"inNyoningeijutsu,March1930,pp.88–93. ———."Washi,"inKaizo,June1933,pp.69–89. ———."WatashigamoshiKachiushadeattanaraba,"inShincho*,March1933.pp.70–71. ———."Yukainaruchizu:Tairikuenohitoritabi,"inNyoningeijutsu,November1930,pp.52–57. ———."Yukigari,"inChuokoron*,February1937,pp.50–71. WorksinEnglishTranslation HayashiFumiko."Bones."Tr.byTedTakayainTheCatchandOtherWarStories.Tokyo:KodanshaInternational,1981. ———."BorneoDiamond."Tr.byLaneDunlopinAutumnWindandOtherStories.Rutland,Vt.:CharlesE.Tuttle,1994. ———."Downtown."Tr.byIvanMorrisinModernJapaneseLiterature.NewYork:GrovePress,1956. ———.DriftingClouds.Tr.byYoshiyukiKoitabashiandMartinC.Collcott.Tokyo:Harashobo,1965. ———.DiaryofaVagabond.Tr.byJoanEricsoninBeaWoman:HayashiFumikoandModernJapaneseLiterature.Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress, 1997. ———.ISawaPaleHorse&SelectionsfromDiaryofaVagabond.Tr.byJaniceBrown.Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityEastAsiaProgram,1997. ———."ALateChrysanthemum."Tr.byLaneDunlopinALateChrysanthemum:Twenty­oneStoriesfromtheJapanese.SanFrancisco:NorthPoint,1986. ———."LordBuddha."Tr.byKennethRexrothandIkukoAtsumiinBurningHeart.NewYork:SeaburyPress,1977. ———."SonginDespair."Tr.byIchiroKonoandRikutaroFukudainAnAnthologyofModernJapanesePoetry.Tokyo:Kenkyusha,1957. ———."SplendidPith."Tr.bySakaeShioyainWesternHumanitiesReview99.9(Summer1952)and99.12(1953).

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HiranoKen."Kalsetsu."InTokudaShusei*sho,vol.4ofShincho*Nihonbungaku.Tokyo:Shinchosha,1973. ———.Showabungakushi.Tokyo:Chikumashobo,1963. ImagawaEiko."Nenpu"and"Choshomokuroku."inHayashiFumikozenshu,vol.16.Tokyo:Bunsendo,1977,283–360. InoueTakaharu.HayashiFumikotosonoshuhen.Kokubunji(Kyoshu):Musashinoshobo,1990. IsogaiHideo.HayashiFumiko:Shinchonihonbungakuarubamu,vol.34.Tokyo:Shinchosha,1986. ItagakiHiroko."HayashiFumiko."InKindainihonjoseishi3.Tokyo:Kagoshimakenkyujoshuppan,1972,pp.144–77. ItagakiNaoko.Fujinsakkahyoden.Tokyo:Mejikarufurendosha,1954. ———.HayashiFumiko.Tokyo:Tokyoraifusha,1956. ———,ed.Gendainoesupuri:HayashiFumiko.Tokyo:Shibundo,1965. ———."HayashiFumiko."InMeiji,Taisho,Showanojoryubungaku.Tokyo:Ofusha,1967,pp.214–33. ———.HayashiFumikonoshogai*.Tokyo:Daiwashobo,1965. ———."HayashiFumiko:Sakufunokojotohatten."InKokubungakukaishakutokansho.Tokyo:Shibundo,1972,pp.101–4. KamiyaTadataka."HayashiFumiko."InNihonnodada.Sapporo:Kyobunsha,1987,pp.172–79. KasaiZenzo.KootsureteinGendainihonbungakutaikei,vol.49.Tokyo:Chikumashobo,1943,pp.12–23. KawabataYasunari.KawabataYasunarizenshu.Tokyo:Shinchosha,1982. KawafukuTokinori."HayashiFumikoBangikunitsuite."InKindaijoryubungaku(Nihonbungakukenkyushiryososho*series).Tokyo:Yuseido,1983,pp.86– 89. KawamoriYoshizo."Hayashi­sannoshosetsu*."InKindaijoryubungaku(Nihonbungakukenkyushiryososhoseries).Tokyo:Yuseido,1983,pp.81–83. Kindaijoryubungaku(Nihonbungakukenkyushiryososhoseries).Tokyo:Yuseido,1983. KumasakaAtsuko."Onnentoshitenojoryubungaku:HayashiFumikotoOkamotoKanoko."InKokubungaku.Tokyo:Gakutosha,October,1974,pp.79–83. ———."HayashiFumiko."InGendaibungakukenkyu:Johotoshiryo,HasegawaIzumi,ed.Tokyo:Shibundo,1987,452–54. KusabeKazuko."MiyamotoYuriko,HayashiFumikonobuntai:Sonosanbunseltojojosei."InKindaijoryubungaku(Nihonbungakukenkyushiryososho series).Tokyo:Yuseido,1983,pp.108–13. MikiKiyoshi."Tabinitsuite."InJinseironnoto.Tokyo:Shinchosha,1954,pp.132–38. MoriEiichi.HayashiFumikonokeisei:Sonoseitohyogen.Tokyo:Yuseido,1992. ———.ShuseikaraFumikoe.Kanazawa:Notoinsatsu,1990. MuramatsuSadataka."HayashiFumikonodanseihenreki."InSakkanokakeitokankyo.Tokyo:Shibundo,1964,pp.202–17.

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Index

A "TheAccordionandtheFishTown":185n.62; firstdraftof,15; optimismin,68; successof,18 "AnAccountLedgerfromParis,"78 Adoption: HF'sadoptionofson,40; asliterarytheme,41 Ajisai.See"Hydrangea" Akigakitanda.See"AutumnHasCome" AkinumaYoko*,pennameofHF,9 AkutagawaRyunosuke,56 "AlltheWaytoObihiro,"36 Ame.SeeRainor"Rain" Anarchistpoets,influenceonHF,11,62 Andersen'sFairyTales,179n.123 Andorusendowa.SeeAndersen'sFairyTales "TheAnemophily,"41 Aoumaomitari.SeeISawaPaleHorse Arrangedmarriages: "LightnessandDarkness,"177n.93; Lightning,106­9; asliterarytheme,112­21 AsahiNews(newspaper),38 "Author'sNotebook,"25 "AutumnHasCome,"16 Awarehitozuma.SeePitifulWife

B Bangiku.See"LateChrysanthemum" Bannedbooks,40 Battlefront,38,39,132­34 "Beef,"34,42 "BeforeandAftertheConscription,"37 "BelovedKatusha,"23­24 "BelowtheEquator,"39,178n.115 Billows,22 "BlowingSnow,"132,135,142­43 Bluntlanguage,HF'suseof,15,156 "Bones,"34,132,135 BrownEyes,97­99,121 Bundan:176n.75; HF'sacceptanceinto,28,42 Bungaku,tabi,sonota.See"Literature,Travel,Etc." Bungakutekidansho.SeeLiteraryFragments Bungeishunju*(magazine),37 Busse,Karl,5

C "Canary,"102 "Canary'sSong,"9 Chaironome.SeeBrownEyes Chekov,Anton,20 Chichiokataru.See"ADiscourseonMyFather" Chiisakikyochi*.See"LittleViewpoint" China,HF'sfirsttripto(1930),17 "ChrysanthemumPampasGrass,"42 Chuokoron*(magazine),12,37,38,78 "Clara,"179n.122 ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis,"78,79,82,86,184n.27 Coconut,"150­52 Cocteau,Jean,28,32­33,80 "Comfort,"132,135­37 "TheCrane'sFlute,"149­50 CreativeNotebook,28 "Crow,"132 "Crybaby,"xii,40,171n.1 "TheCuckoo,"34

D DailyNews(newspaper),37­38 Daininokekkon.SeeSecondMarriage

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Damudamu(magazine),11 "DancingGirl,"101,116,118­21,132,140,186n.73 Daoism,60 Darkness,inHF'sworks,131­32 Dauntaun.See"Downtown" DazaiOsamu,151 Death: offriends,151; HF's,42,153; HF'sthoughtson,150 Determinism: defined,182n.49; freewillvs.,62­68 "DiaryofanActress,"40 ADiaryofSixteenNights,74 DiaryofaVagabond:6,7; Basho'straveloguescomparedto,52; detail,attentionto,49; dialogue,treatmentof,48; DriftingCloudscomparedto,144; fictionalelementsof,51; HF'sopinionof,168; hometown,desirefor,92; KnutHamsun'sHungercomparedto,55; organizedreligionin,25; originof,45; readershipof,51; sectionorderof,46; structuralattributesof,47­53; successof,17; theatreandfilmversionsof,45; translationsof,45 DiaryofaVagabond,Continued,46 "ADiscourseonMyFather,"3 "TheDistrict,"69,70­71 Dostoyevski,Fyodor20 "DriedLeaves,"36 DriftingClouds,39­40,87,91,93­96,102,121,156,186n.73; DiaryofaVagabondcomparedto,144; fatalismin,65,144­47; fatein,131­32; organizedreligioncriticizedin,147­50 "Downtown,"42,132,135,171n.1

E Ehon.See"PictureBook" "ElixirofLife,"9 Escapism,96­100 "EveningattheSuperannuatedEstate,"9 "EveningUmbrella,"34,132,135,139­41 "EverydayLife,"28,183n.10

F AFamilyofWomen,42,110­11 Fatalism,142­47 Fate,131 Feminism: defined,102; asliterarytheme,156; aspoliticalaction,156 "FloatingGrassplot,"122,124­26 "TheFlounder'sSchool,"149 "AFlower'sPlace,"116­17,132,140,186n.73 "FlowersonaVine,"59,181n.36 Food,xi,42,45,65,179n.124 TheFox'sTale,149 "TheFrenchCountryside,"78 Freewill: beliefin105; determinismvs.,62­68; lossoffaithin,131,135 "TheFrog,"179n.122 "FromNewsFromFrance,"79,80,86 Fubai.See"TheAnemophily" Fubuki.See"BlowingSnow" Fudegaki.See"Writing" Fujinsekai(magazine).See"Housewife'sWorld" Fukin*touonomachi.See"TheAccordionandtheFishTown" Fukuronodairyoko.See"TheOwl'sBigJourney" Fumiko(pennameofHayashiFumiko),10 Furansudayorikara.See"FromNewsfromFrance" Furansunoinaka.See"TheFrenchCountryside" FurutaniTsunatake,50 FutabateiShimei,xi Futari.See"TheTwoofUs" Fuyunoringo.SeeWinterApples

G Gaikokunoomoide.See"MemoriesofAbroad" "TheGlacier,"126,128­29 Goals,strivingfor,156 Goethe,J.W.5 Gorkii,Maksim,55; TheLowerDepths,55

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TheGossamerYears,52 "GreenMountainsAllAround,"177n.96,180n.15 Gyokai.See"Seafood" Gyuniku*.See"Beef"

H HagiwaraKyojiro,11 Haiennoyube*.See"EveningattheSuperannuatedEstate" Hama(mistressofMiyataAsataro*),2­3 Hamsun,Knut: Hunger,55; influenceonHF,55 Hananoichi.See"AFlower'sPlace" Happiness,169 HasegawaShigure,16,28,151 Hato*.SeeBillows Hatsutabi.See"MaidenVoyage" HayashiFumiko: adoptionofson,40; arrest,19; attitudetowardwriting.SeeWriting;birth,1,172n.2; childhood,1­5; churchattendance,24; conflictingfactsabout,172n.1,179n.120; death,42; engagementtoOkanoGun'ichi,10; familyregistry,1; father.SeeMiyataAsataro*; foreignlanguages,fluencyin,5; heartdisease,42,141; house,purchaseof,38­39; illegitimacy,1; marriage,16,105; maternalgrandmother,relationswith,4; mother.SeeHayashiKiku; parents'separation,3; penname,10; religiousfeelings,24­26; schooling,3­5; siblings,1; successasawriter,26­30; teachers,4­5; youngadulthood,9­12 HayashiFusao,28,37 HayashiKiku(motherofHF): adulthood,2­4; birth,1; liveswithFumikoandRokubin,19; travelswithHF,166 Heine,Heinrich,5,20 HinoAshihei,133,190n.8 HirabayashiTaiko,11,15 Hiramenogakko.See"TheFlounder'sSchool" HirotsuKazuo,28 Hitorinoshogai*.SeeOnePerson'sLife Hodohan*.SeeJapaneseNewsCorps Hokuganbutai.SeeTheNorthBankUnit Hone.See"Bones" Horoki.SeeDiaryofaVagabond "TheHorsewithanEarring,"68,69 Hototogisu.See"TheCuckoo" Housewife'sFriend(magazine),42,156 Housewife'sWorld(magazine),78 "Hydrangea,"102 Hyoga.See"TheGlacier"

I "IdleThoughtsonTravel,"76,77,183n.15 "IfIwereKatusha,"64 Illegitimacy: HF'sbirth,1; asliterarytheme,1,126­29; depictedin"TheSpring,"177n.93 Inazuma.SeeLightning Inochinosake.See"ElixirofLife" InoueYasushi,183n.6 Internationaltravel,183n.12.Seealsoindividualcountries ISawaPaleHorse,17 Isemonogatari.SeeTalesofIse Itarutokoroaoyamaari.See"GreenMountainsAllAround" Ito*Sei,33­34,74 ItoshinoKachusha*.See"BelovedKatusha" IwanoHomei,181n.32 Izayoinikki.SeeADiaryofSixteenNights Izu,77 Izumi.See"TheSpring"

J Japaneselanguage,beautyof,86,165 JapaneseNewsCorps,39 Joryubungaku.SeeWomen'sLiterature Joyce,James,186n.73 Joyuki.See"DiaryofanActress" Junbungaku.SeePureliterature Juenkan.SeeTenYears

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K Kaeru.See"TheFrog" Kageronikki.SeeTheGossamerYears KaibaraEkiken,185n.60 Kaizo(magazine),18,33,45­46,78,86,178n.115 Kaki.See"TheOyster" Kame­san.See"Mr.Turtle" Kamome.SeeWildDucks Kanariya.See"Canary" Kanariyanouta.See"Canary'sSong" KanbeYuichi*,11 Kane.See"Money" Karasu.See"Crow" Kareha.See"DriedLeaves" KasaiZenzo,55; "WithChildren,"55 KataokaTeppei,151 KawabataYasunari,42,74,183n.6; "CrystalFantasies,"186n.73; "FallingLeaves,"86; "Needles,Glass,andFog,"186n.73; Kawauta.SeeRiverSong Kawahaze.See"RiverGoby" Kikobungaku.SeeTravelwriting KikuchiKan,28,151 Kikuobana.See"ChrysanthemumPampasGrass" KishidaKunio,37 Kitsunemonogatari.SeeTheFox'sTale KobayashiHideo,37,92­93,183n.6 KobayashiIssa,62 KobayashiMasao(teachertoHF),4­5 KobayashiTakiji,175n.58,192n.4; influenceonHF,161 KoboriJinji,15 Koyanoniji.See"RainbowsintheWasteland" "KreutzerSonata,"13­14 KunikidaDoppo,181n.32 Kurara.See"Clara" Kuroitserusonata.See"KreutzerSonata"

L "LateChrysanthemum,"15,34,45" LightnessandDarkness,"34,60,177n.93,181n.37 Lightning:78,110,111,126,128­29; arrangedmarriages,106­7; HF'sopinionof,168; violence,12­13 LiteraryFragments,192n.8 "Literature,Travel,Etc.,"29­30,52,75­77,85­86; (translationof)163­67 Literatureofpoverty: lumpenliteraturecomparedto,58,155,160 "LittleViewpoint,"19,175n.57 London,HF'stripto(1932),79 "ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters,"32,78,79,80,84 London,Jack,5 Loneliness: happinessand,84; inspiration,motivationand,89,92­93; necessarytowriting,76­78; traveland,73­100,183n.17 "LordBuddha,"11 Lossofinnocence,95 Lumpenliterature:54; literatureofpovertycomparedto,58,155,160 LuXun,18

M "MaidenVoyage,"88,90­91 Maihime.See"DancingGirl" MainichiShimbun(newspaper),SeeDailyNews Malaria,178n.110 Malecharacters,depictionof,101 Marriage.SeealsoArrangedmarriages;failed,121­25; HF's,16,105,188n.17; asliterarytheme,105­25; questioning,106­12 MasamuneHakucho,59,74,181n.32 MasaokaShiki,151 Massliterature,56,180n.23 "MasterShusei*,"36

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Matsubabotan:HayashiFumikobunkoatogaki.See"PostscripttoRosemoss" MatsuoBasho:73,74; EssayfromaTraveler'sBook­Satchel,52; HF'sopinionof164; influenceonHF,52,166; NarrowRoadtotheDeepNorth,52,74 Maupassant,Guy,20­22 Meian.See"LightnessandDarkness" "MemoriesofAbroad,"79,80 Meshi.SeeFood Michi(Bakin'samanuensis),102­5,188n.16 MikamiOtokichi,16 Mimiwanotsuitauma.See"TheHorsewithanEarring" MiyataAsataro*(fatherofHF): birth,1; HF'slackofaffectionfor,3­4; mistress,2­3; SawaiKisaburo*,relationswith,2­3 Moji:birthplaceofHF,2 "Money,"175n.56 MoriOgai,xi,169; "DancingGirl,"74 "Mr.Turtle,"149­50 Mukuge.See"RoseofSharon" MurasakiShikibu,63 "MyHorizon,"58,86,175n.60; translationof,159­62 "MyMemoranda,"61,183n.7 "MyTravelogues,"100 "MyWork,"83; translationof,168­70

N NagaiKafu*,36,74; GeishainRivalry,101 Nagusame.See"Comfort" NakamuraMitsuo,74 Nakimushikozo.See"Crybaby" Nanjing,fallof,37 Naporinonichiyobi.See"SundayinNaples" "Narcissus,"34,42 NatsumeSoseki*,xi; PillowofGrass,74 Naturalism,xi­xii NewSensationalistSchool,31,79­80,176n.82 TheNewYodogimi,187n.4 "NewsfromaJourney,"183n.15,184n.27 "ANightofDreams,"19,175n.59 Nihilism: anarchycomparedto,62; defined,181n.27; asliterarytheme,58­62 Nioisumire.See"TheSweetViolet" NomuraYoshiya(loverofHF),11,12,71,173n.31,188n.17 TheNorthBankUnit,38,39,132­33,137 Novalis,5 Nyoningeijutsu(magazine).SeeWomenandtheArts

O Obihiromade.See"AlltheWaytoObihiro" OdaSakunosuke,151 OkamotoJun,11 OkamotoKanoko,74 OkanoGun'ichi,(fianceofHF),4­5,9­10,188n.17 OnePerson'sLife: father,referencesto,3­4,40,97,172n.2; Christianityin,24­25; nihilismin,60 OnoTozaburo,11 Onomichi,HF'Slifein,4­5 OokaShohei,74 Optimism: DiaryofaVagabond,66­68; shortstories,68­72 O­shaka­sama.See"LordBuddha" Osho*zengo.See"BeforeandAftertheConscription" "TheOwl'sBigJourney,"149­50 "TheOyster,"26­28,45,65,131,171n.1 OzakiShiro*,37

P Parimadeseiten.See"ClearSkiesAlltheWaytoParis" Parinokozukaicho.See"AnAccountLedgerfromParis"

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Parinonikki.See"ParisDiary" Paris,HF'stripto(1931),17,78 "ParisDiary,"5,79,80,84­85,172n.2,185n.41 PeacePreservationLaw(chianijiho),175n.58 PenButai.SeePenCorps PenCorps,37­38 Philosophicalandliteraryinfluences,20­24,53­62 "PictureBook,"179n.122 PitifulWife,42,112­16,132,140 PoeticDiary,51 "PostscripttoRosemoss,"180n.9 "PrefacetoFish,"171n.1 Prévost,Abbé,5 Problemchildren,126 Proletarianliterature,54,159,180n.26 Pureliterature,56,180n.23

R Raicho.See"SnowGrouse" Rain,7,109­10,111,185n.62 "Rain,"101,132,135,137­39,187n.2 "RainbowsintheWasteland,"122­24 Raten­kunosampo.See"AWalkintheLatinQuarter" "ARecordofHonorablePoverty":171n.1; optimismin,69,71; originof,16 Religion: DriftingClouds,147; falsesolaceof,147­50; asliterarytheme,24­26 "RiverGoby,"135,171n.1 RiverSong:7,52,97,111; illegitimacy,126­28,129; marriage,107­9; religions,26 Rondonnogeshuku,sonota.See"ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters" RoseofSharon,20­21,42,97 Ryoshu:61,75,99­100; defined,87.SeealsoLoneliness RyuteiTanehiko,104,188n.12

S Sakananojobun.See"PrefacetoFish" Sakkanotecho*.See"Author'sNotebook" SantoKyoden,188n.12 SantoKyozan,104,188n.12 SataIneko,28 Sato*Haruo,28,183n.6 SawaiKisaburo*(stepfatherofHF),2­3; deathof,19; HF'sfeelingsfor,19 Sazanami.See"Waves" Scent,asdescriptivetool,6­9 "TheSeaofTravelWeariness,"88­90,91,132,135 "Seafood,"171n.1 SecondMarriage,97 Seihinnosho.See"ARecordofHonorablePoverty" Seikatsu.See"EverydayLife" Sekido*noshita.See"BelowtheEquator" Sensen.SeeBattlefront ShiberiyanoSantoressha.See"ThirdClassontheTrans­SiberianRailroad" ShigaNaoya,74,129,183n.6 ShimazakiToson,63,74,80 ShinYodogimi.SeeTheNewYodogimi Shinkankakuha.See"NewSensationalistSchool" Shoku.See"TheDistrict" Shufunotomo(magazine).See"Housewife'sFriend" Shusei*sensei.See"MasterShusei" Smell.SeeScent,asdescriptivetool "TheSnappingTurtle,"193n.22 "SnowGrouse,"42 "ASouvenirfromTaiwan,"17 SovietUnion,HF'sreactionto,82 "SplendidPith,"135,185n.62 "TheSpring,"34,177n.93 Stendahl,191n.53 Success,26­30 Suicide: "ALondonBoardingHouseandOtherMatters,"84; DriftingClouds,94; asliterarytheme,124­25 Suisen.See"Narcissus"

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Sumatora—seifu*noshima.See"Sumatra—IslandoftheWesternWind" "Sumatra—IslandoftheWesternWind,"39,178n.115 "SundayinNaples,"79,80,86 Suppon.See"TheSnappingTurtle" Survival,primacyof,135­42 SuzukiMiekichi,5

T "TheSweetViolet,"41 Tabidayori.See"NewsfromaJourney" Tabitsurezure.See"IdleThoughtsonTravel" Tabibito.See"TheTraveler" Tai(adoptedsonofHF),40 Taishubungaku.SeeMassliterature Taiwan,HF'sfirsttripto(1930),17 Taiwannofukei*.See"TheTaiwaneseLandscape" Taiwannosubuniiru.See"ASouvenirfromTaiwan" Taiwanotabishite.See"TravelinginTaiwan" "TheTaiwaneseLandscape,"17 TakashiShinkichi,11 TakedaRintaro,151 TakizawaBakin,102­5; TheStoryofEightDogs,102­3 TakizawaSohaku(sonofBakin),102,104,188n.15 TheTaleofGenji,63 TalesofIse,51,52 TanabeWakao(loverofHF),10,188n.17 TanizakiJun'ichiro,56; TheMakiokaSisters,101; SomePreferNettles,101; TayamaKatai,63,181n.32; CountryTeacher,63 TenYears,6,7,60,126,128­29 TezukaRokubin(husbandofHF):69,71; armyconscription,37; birth,16; familyregistry,189n.31; marriagetoHF,15­16; originofname,174n.37 "ThirdClassontheTrans­SiberianRailroad,"5,78,79,81­82,184n.27 TokudaShusei*:28; influenceonHF,11,35­36; "TheFoldingSatchel,"36,178n.102; Footprints,36,178n.101; Mildew,36; "TheStoryofaProstitute,"36,178n.101; TheStubbySpirit,36,178n.103 Tokyo,HF'smoveto(1922),9­10 Tolstoy,Lev,influenceonHF,20,23­24,64; Resurrection,23,64 TomotaniShizue,10,11 TosaDiary,52,74,86 Trans­Siberianrailroadtrip(1931),79 Travel:interactionwithpeople,80­81; lonelinessand,73­100,183n.17 Travelwriting: nostalgia,165; traditionof,74 "TheTraveler,"184n.28 "TravelinginTaiwan,"17 Travelogues: defined,73,183n.13; H.F.'sEuropean,78­87 TsuboiShigeji,11 TsubouchiShoyo,xi TsujiJun,11 Tsurunofue.See"TheCrane'sFlute" Tsurukusanohana.See"FlowersonaVine" TheTwoofUs,11

U Ukigumo.SeeDriftingClouds Ukisu.See"FloatingGrassplot" UnoChiyo,74 UnoKoji*:28,36; influenceonHF,11 Uruwashikisekizui.See"SplendidPith" Utanikki.SeePoeticDiary

V Vagrancy,46,73 Violence,12­15

W "AWalkintheLatinQuarter,"79,80,86,185n.41 Warliterature,37­38,190n.8

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WatashigamoshiKachiushadeattanareba.See"IfIwereKatusha" Watashinochiheisen.See"MyHorizon" Watashinokiko.See"MyTravelogues" Watashinooboegaki.See"MyMemoranda" Watashinoshigoto.See"MyWork" Waves,42 Whitman,Walt,5 WildDucks,65 "WildMonkey,"171n.1 WinterApples,97 WomenandtheArts(magazine),16,156,174n.38 Women'sissues,101­5 Women'sliterature: HF'sworksas,101,105 WorldWarII: effectonHF,132; Japan'seffectin,144; reportage,37­38,132­35 Writing: futilityof,150; lonelinessand,76­78; needfor,29­30; pleasurein,164 "Writing,"102­5

Y YadaTsuseko,151 Yaen.See"WildMonkey" Yashinomi.See"Coconut" YokomitsuRiichi:38,74,151; "TheDefeatedHusband,"31,33; HF'srelationswith,177n.92; "HeadsandBellies,"31; influenceonHF,30­35; "TheMachine,"31,33­34 Yomiurishimbun(newspaper),16 Yorunokomorigasa*.See"EveningUmbrella" YosanoAkiko,74 YoshiyaNobuko,28 Yumeichiya.See"ANightofDreams"

Z ZhouMao­shu,60­61 ZokuHoroki.SeeDiaryofaVagabond,Continued